tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-22401687822607972892024-03-14T01:17:18.246-06:00Green Fork UtahThe Blog of the Utah Society for Environmental EducationGreen Forkhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11246358800941109479noreply@blogger.comBlogger623125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-18929698315220275732015-09-24T13:47:00.003-06:002015-09-24T13:47:54.270-06:00Guest Blog: Glendale Golf Course Food Forest (Bingham Food Forest) by U of U Professional Writing<h3>
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<span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">This November, Salt Lake citizens will vote on the General Operations bond which will allow the Salt Lake City government to update and repurpose open lands such as parks, golf courses, and trails, in a way the city finds best. “The city golf program is at a point where it is no longer fiscally viable. Unfortunately, getting back to a solid, viable financial base at this point is just flatly going to require some course closures,” as stated by Art Raymond, a spokesman for mayor Ralph Becker. In its place, the mayor has created a “Connecting You to Nature” proposal which will offer new ways to use the allocated space. The opportunities include new paved and unpaved trails for bicyclists and walkers/hikers, new recreational opportunities, and an urban farm/orchard (or in other words, an urban forest).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small; line-height: 107%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;">The idea originated from the Beacon Urban Forest in Seattle, WA. The forest’s
mission is to create awareness of the climate impact of food production,
revitalize the local ecosystem, improve public health, and educate the
community. Salt Lake’s future food forest anticipates a similar impact. The
Bingham Food Forest will feature produce that consists of: groundcover, medicinal
herbs, vegetables, berries, shrubs, fruit and nut trees, and vines directly viable
and free of cost to the public. </span></div>
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<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 107%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;">The design will be based on an agroforestry
system (a system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or
pastureland. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more
diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems)
based on woodland ecosystems which will be low maintenance and sustainable. The
idea is to plant species of plants that grow well together in close proximity
to each other; for example, growing legumes which have nitrogen fixing bacteria
in their roots along with other plants, which helps provide a nitrogen rich
soil to surrounding plants allowing for more viable growth. In other words, the
urban forest won’t look like an orchard, but rather a natural ecosystem filled
with agricultural vegetation.</span></span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: small;">A successful food forest would help diminish some adverse effects caused by large scale agriculture entities. Based on a ground water study published in the Hydrology Journal in 2002, direct effects of agriculture include dissolution and transport of excess fertilizers and similar materials into irrigation and drainage areas. These materials often reach sources of ground water and either directly or indirectly affect concentration of inorganic chemicals in the water, including nitrates, sulfates, strontium, and radium. In addition to contaminated ground water, many large scale agricultural corporations have implemented the use of genetically modified crops which in turn creates a more resilient and uniform product. These more resilient plants are able to withstand Roundup and other harsh pesticides, which effectively remove weeds, insects, and rodents. As nature becomes resistant to these chemicals, it creates a vicious cycle of artificially engineering food to survive new pesticides. As stated before, the food forest will implement the use of agricultural diversity which will help maintain nutritionally rich soil and the use of natural non-GMO seeds will increase the crop’s nutritional value. The absence of fertilizers and pesticides will also help maintain a clean ground water source for the community. If the forest develops exponentially, it may provide food for a large amount of local residents reducing the need for imported food in the area; in turn reducing transportation pollution.</span></div>
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<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">An urban forest’s purpose isn’t only to serve as a means of city agriculture, it opens up opportunities for recreation, wild-life, and a sense of community. The Bingham Food Forest will be carved with walkways for people to enjoy a sunny afternoon along the Jordan River, and also will feature an observation tower to take in the sights. The food forest will also be used as a meeting place for the Farmers Market every Saturday, allowing people to come and buy fresh, home-grown goods. The forest will also offer afternoon wildlife lectures at the observation tower, and use it as a venue for outdoor concerts.</span></span></h3>
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Another alternative for the 160 acres that currently make up the Glendale Golf Course would be to restore it to the natural riverfront area it was before, which would provide a sanctuary for native birds, plants, and other wildlife. Plans have already been put together by Ray Wheeler, who is highly involved in the Jordan River restoration, that would help the city take advantage of the rare </div>
</span></span><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cEKkaabBXI4/Vb-QThG_KRI/AAAAAAAAAEE/pci0EPMpdOw/s1600/food%2Bforest%2Bbirds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cEKkaabBXI4/Vb-QThG_KRI/AAAAAAAAAEE/pci0EPMpdOw/s1600/food%2Bforest%2Bbirds.jpg" /></span></span></a><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;">opportunity to use a large portion of land in natural restoration. One of Wheeler’s arguments is cost. If half of Glendale Golf Course was converted into soccer fields and playgrounds (which is a proposed idea), it would cost somewhere near $48 million. In order to change the golf course back to its natural state, the total Ray Wheeler has purposed would be $7.3 million dollars. This is broken down into $2 million to purchase the land, and an estimated $5.3 million for the restoration of natural vegetation. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">While there are a number of communal and environmental benefits from converting the golf course to a food forest, there are many that would like to keep the course open for recreation and financial purposes. There are indeed a number of courses in the Salt Lake area that are losing money but currently the Glendale course is not one of them. The Glendale course is in fact projected to run a $50,000 profit this year in light of a warmer, shorter winter. This change in profits have given rise to questions whether closing Glendale makes sense given other courses are losing much more money. The main deficit is coming from the Rose Park course, projected to lose $281,000 in 2015; accounting for over 100% of the city’s golf fund deficit going into 2016. The other main financial issue is how to pay for the repurposing of the Glendale course. Currently repurposing the course is estimated to cost $50 million, which, as of now, would be paid for via a bond measure funded by the taxpayers.</span></div>
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The city's system faces a national trend characterized by an overall decline in rounds of golf played each year. Salt Lake's the Golf Enterprise Fund is expected to lose $500,000 this season, putting it $1 million in the red after a similar performance last year. Also, the fund's annual revenues are about $8 million, but they have $23 million in deferred maintenance across the system over the past decade. Although reducing golf courses may create heartache for some, creating forests enriches life, biodiversity and fertility. Where life gathers, complex and mutually beneficial relationships are created between organisms; natural harmonious communities form, and life forms multiply and proliferate.</div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Other urban food forests such as Seattle’s Beacon Food Forest, and Los Angeles’ Food Forest are ran by a collective community effort. The Bingham Food Forest plans to model itself like Seattle’s Beacon Food Forest and be managed by large communal work parties. If Glendale Golf Course is turned into a food forest, this could also be a good blueprint to follow. This stewardship creates low costs to maintain the food forest, and creates a bond among the community. A lasting bond in a community is something that we can all agree on, and is something that should always be in the forefront of our minds.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">You may not think that a food forest is the best option, or you might have another idea of what should be put in place of the Glendale Golf Course. Our state and city cares about the opinions of its residents. </span><span style="font-size: small;">If you would like to voice your opinion the city has set this link up, where you can </span><a href="http://www.slcgov.com/opencityhall?pd_url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peakdemocracy.com%2Fportals%2F79%2FForum_221%2FIssue_2698%2Fsurvey_responses%2Fnew#peak_democracy">voice your opinion here.</a><span style="font-size: small;"> For our land to thrive we need to be responsible stewards, to do this our voice needs to be heard.</span></div>
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“Democracy cannot succeed unless those who express their choice are prepared to choose wisely. The real safeguard of democracy, therefore, is education”</i> -Franklin D. Roosevelt</h3>
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1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">http://www.cityweekly.net/utah/to-giveth-and-taketh/Content?oid=2854257</span><br />
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2) <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">http://www.good4utah.com/story/d/story/glendale-golf-course-closing/11583/-zFc-1eI40WbRDa-mgJwng</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">3) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">http://www.krcl.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Bingham-Food-Forest-3.pdf</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">4) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">http://ouroutdoorsslc.com/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">5) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">http://www.krcl.org/just-one-question-whats-a-food-forest/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">6) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">http://www.beaconfoodforest.org/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">7) </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-language: JA;"><a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10040-001-0183-3">http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10040-001-0183-3</a></span><br />
8) http://www.earthrestoration.net/files/328801_328900/328810/2015-05-29-natureinthecityproposalsummary-reducedsize.pdf<br />
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Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-67637564744601269472015-07-24T14:15:00.000-06:002015-07-24T14:15:25.288-06:00Guest Blog: Mountain Accord by U of U Professional Writing <div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Wasatch
Mountains have long been a natural sanctuary and retreat for Utah’s residents;
offering clean spring water, pure mountain air, diverse recreation
opportunities, and seemingly boundless wilderness areas called home by moose,
mountain lions, mountain goats, deer, as well as numerous other species.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Mountain
Accord was created by a collaboration of government, business, private, and
special interest groups in hopes of solving the rising current and foreseen
future problems of the Wasatch Mountains in regard to transportation,
recreation, economics, and environmental issues. The Mountain Accord proposal
is an ongoing liquid process intended to evolve based on public opinion. The
committee holds public forums where local residents are encouraged to get
involved, ask questions, and discuss alternate solutions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">A large
driving force behind the Mountain Accord is Utah’s Ski Industry and its immense
impact on Utah’s economy. The Mountain Accord intends to impact Little and Big
Cottonwood Canyons as well as Parley’s Canyon and the corresponding resorts:
Canyons, Park City, Brighton, Solitude, Alta, and Snowbird. The proposal
tackles the ever growing problem of transportation to and from these recreation
areas. Due to the narrow single lane roads ascending Little and Big Cottonwood
Canyons, traffic (especially in the winter time) becomes exceedingly congested,
forcing motorists to wait hours before they are able to get to the ski areas. For
example, on a powder day</span><span style="color: #00b0f0; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">,</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"> traffic to Snowbird
and Alta (located in Little Cottonwood) can be backed up as far as the I-215
exit ramp on 6200 S; which is approximately a 12 mile distance. The proposal
also discusses creating connections between the resorts for easier access, so
skiers and snowboarders can visit more than one resort in a single day more
effectively. The proposed project suggests building a tunnel through the
mountain to connect Brighton and Alta resorts, rerouting a ski lift to connect
Big Cottonwood Canyon and Canyons / Park City resorts, as well as creating a
train and/or more extensive bus system to shuttle visitors up Little Cottonwood
Canyon.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">While the
Mountain Accord could vastly improve transportation across the Wasatch
Mountains, it is not without its concerns. Many recreational users of the two
Cottonwood Canyons worry that the expansion of roads or installation of a rail
line could destroy the natural beauty of the canyons given the narrow nature of
Little Cottonwood Canyon in particular. These changes could also result in an
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4UntW06rWQo/VbKa7_nMZ9I/AAAAAAAAADc/Oc9CAEQfKS8/s1600/MA%2Bplan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: justify;"><img border="0" height="261" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4UntW06rWQo/VbKa7_nMZ9I/AAAAAAAAADc/Oc9CAEQfKS8/s320/MA%2Bplan.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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influx of visitors, potentially exceeding the carrying capacity of the canyons
and putting excessive pressure on the canyons’ resources. Expansion of these
roads could also eliminate hiking trail heads or rock climbing locations in the
canyon. This is all compounded by the fact that the proposed costs for these
expansions could reach 3 billion dollars and there is as of yet no plan of how
to pay for it.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Alongside
all of this development, Mountain Accord does have plans for conservation
efforts. They are currently working to identify available private lands in the
Cottonwood Canyons and purchase them to place these lands under public
protection. This will place strict boundaries on the ski resorts, preventing
them from expanding to undeveloped lands on the slopes. These restrictions will
be made in exchange for the resorts expanding their holdings at the base of the
mountain. There are additional efforts to improve and promote public
transportation up the two Cottonwood Canyons, reducing overall traffic. This
reduction in traffic would reduce pollution in the area, improving local air
quality and maintaining the quality of the Wasatch watershed. This all comes
with a unanimous vote on July 13 to move forward with the plan which includes
upcoming studies that will examine all ideas of connecting the various ski
resorts, including leaving them unconnected. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fGV9UEEYAuE/VbKbDahEsOI/AAAAAAAAADk/hvKFF0kxZDw/s1600/canyon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: justify;"><img border="0" height="223" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fGV9UEEYAuE/VbKbDahEsOI/AAAAAAAAADk/hvKFF0kxZDw/s320/canyon.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">While the
Mountain Accord has established a blueprint to accomplish their goals, it is
not set in stone. “There is this misconception that the blueprint is making a
decision and it’s not,” project manager, Laynee Jones stated in an interview
with Desert News. The plan is always susceptible to change from public opinion
and there is a fear that the plan is open to manipulation down the road from
those looking to modify it for personal gain. This fluidity means the community
must remain vigilant in monitoring the program as it develops. If you feel
strongly about the issues raised here, contact the Mountain Accord organization
at mountainaccord.com and let your voice be heard in shaping the future of the
Wasatch Front.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Written by: Valerie Yukhimova and James Thomas</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><b>Sources:</b></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 17.1200008392334px;">1) </span><a href="http://ski.curbed.com/archives/2015/02/mountain-accord-unveils-ambitious-blueprint-for-utah-ski-country.php" style="background-color: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.8000001907349px;" target="_blank">http://ski.curbed.com/<wbr></wbr>archives/2015/02/mountain-<wbr></wbr>accord-unveils-ambitious-<wbr></wbr>blueprint-for-utah-ski-<wbr></wbr>country.php</a><br />
2) <a href="http://www.law.utah.edu/the-mountain-accord-a-model-of-environmental-conflict-resolution-for-the-wasatch-mountains/" style="background-color: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.8000001907349px;" target="_blank">http://www.law.utah.edu/the-<wbr></wbr>mountain-accord-a-model-of-<wbr></wbr>environmental-conflict-<wbr></wbr>resolution-for-the-wasatch-<wbr></wbr>mountains/</a><br />
3) <a href="http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865624262/Residents-raise-concerns-about-Mountain-Accord-plan.html?pg=all" style="background-color: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.8000001907349px;" target="_blank">http://www.deseretnews.com/<wbr></wbr>article/865624262/Residents-<wbr></wbr>raise-concerns-about-Mountain-<wbr></wbr>Accord-plan.html?pg=all</a><br />
4) <a href="http://mountainaccord.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Final-Accord-July-13-2015.pdf" style="background-color: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.8000001907349px;" target="_blank">http://mountainaccord.com/wp-<wbr></wbr>content/uploads/2015/07/Final-<wbr></wbr>Accord-July-13-2015.pdf</a><br />
5) <a href="http://mountainaccord.com/" style="color: #1155cc; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.8000001907349px;" target="_blank">http://mountainaccord.com/</a><br />
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6) <a href="http://mountainaccord.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Public-Letters.pdf" style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 12.8000001907349px;" target="_blank">http://mountainaccord.com/wp-<wbr></wbr>content/uploads/2015/06/<wbr></wbr>Public-Letters.pdf</a></div>
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Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-48366411529617831472015-07-17T13:49:00.002-06:002015-07-17T13:49:51.000-06:00Guest Blog: Jordan River Rehabilitation by U of U Professional Writing <div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-px2B8qKmZeo/ValQayM1evI/AAAAAAAAACk/-3cHFKHXBV8/s1600/jordan%2Briver.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="182" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-px2B8qKmZeo/ValQayM1evI/AAAAAAAAACk/-3cHFKHXBV8/s320/jordan%2Briver.jpg" width="320" /></a>The
Jordan River runs fifty miles from Utah Lake to the Great Salt Lake. It runs
through the heart of Salt Lake, and northern Utah County. Those two counties
combined total more than 1.5 million people, all of which are very close to the
Jordan River. Many different species of animals such as reptiles, birds, fish,
amphibians, mammals, and other organisms (including humans) in the animal
kingdom call the Jordan River home. The river serves many purposes in our
society and culture, but over the decades the river has also been abused and
mistreated. This mistreatment has not gone un-noticed. People are banding
together to clean up our river and make sure it becomes one of the jewels of
northern Utah. <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Like
most urban rivers on earth, the Jordan River has been heavily polluted.
Throughout much of its length it is identified as a diminished waterway due to
known concentrations of fecal coliform and other key indicators of pollution.
Along with the untreated sewage, farm waste run off and hazardous chemical
deposits from past mining operations have leaked into the river resulting in
elevated levels of toxins such as arsenic, sulfates, and various heavy metals.
The effects of these toxins have not remained isolated to water quality, but
have also become detrimental to avian, amphibian, reptilian, and mammalian
ecosystems. When looking at the Jordan River today, it is murky and obviously
thick with sedimentation and algae growth. Fortunately, there have been a
variety of efforts in the past few years to rectify this.<br />
<br />
New
laws and regulations have been implemented in an attempt to clean up the
waterway and consequently the surrounding ecosystem. Organizations such as The
Department for Environmental Quality as well as The Utah Division of Water
Quality have been monitoring water quality and enforcing regulations to better
maintain it. For example, much of the Wasatch Mountain range is considered a
watershed whose waters are protected under category 1 and 2 water restrictions.
This means the waters are of “exceptional recreational or ecological
significance” and will be kept to a high standard of purity. To achieve this
canine and motorized recreational vehicle contamination are restricted,
resulting in a more pure water supply. However, other water sources have not
been as fortunate. Past toxic waste contamination from Kennecott Copper Mine
has made its way into the Jordan River drainage area, releasing high levels of
toxins into the surrounding areas. Since then a Reverse Osmosis water treatment
facility was built, provoked by past failed attempts at purifying the water by
use of conventional methods.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p><br />
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dEY942XuYUQ/Valav-QP0WI/AAAAAAAAAC8/S875808cw_c/s1600/boardwalk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="219" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dEY942XuYUQ/Valav-QP0WI/AAAAAAAAAC8/S875808cw_c/s320/boardwalk.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There
are currently a variety of projects working to restore the Jordan River
Parkway’s natural beauty. The 900 S Oxbow Restoration and Enhancement Project
aims to build multiple <o:p></o:p><br />
ecotones, a transitional area between two ecosystems, at
the intersection of the Jordan River Parkway and the 9line regional trail.
These ecotones will provide a higher quality and more diverse habitat for the
various wildlife living along the Jordan River. The Big Ben Habitat Restoration
Project is currently restoring 70 acres of wildlife habitat for migratory birds
by reconnecting the floodplain area with the Jordan River. Upon completion, the
restoration of the floodplain will reduce the amount of erosion by the river
and provide a retention basin, reducing the risk of flood in the area.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
All of
this work will be insignificant if we do not learn from our past mistakes which
jeopardized the river in the first place. Fortunately, there is a multitude of
resources to help educate our younger generations about the importance of the
Jordan River ecosystem. The Center for Documentary Expression and Art’s
Exhibits that Teach Reawakened Beauty curriculum offers schools an 8 week
residency program for grades 7 through 12. During the 8 weeks an artist,
ecologist, and scholar help educate students about the Jordan River through
hands-on work at the river. Additionally, the Center for the Living City,
YouthCity, and the Utah Lake Commission all offer a variety of curriculums and
lesson plans about our local water sources which teachers can easily use in
their own classrooms. Information regarding the scientific aspects of the river
is also available. Utah Water Watch offers a program which stresses the
importance of water quality and promotes stewardship of Utah’s aquatic
resources. Citizen Science with the Tracy Aviary educate the public about Utah
birds, their habitats, and their importance in relation to Jordan River
ecosystems.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-H8kNZHVcLDc/ValRJzvCsBI/AAAAAAAAACs/jDih1Yd6-ro/s1600/final-logo-small.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-H8kNZHVcLDc/ValRJzvCsBI/AAAAAAAAACs/jDih1Yd6-ro/s1600/final-logo-small.jpg" /></a>In
addition to this community education, efforts are being made to get the local
Jordan River community involved with their environment. The Jordan River
Commission facilitate river cleanup and weed pulling volunteer events for the
community each year. Since 2012 there has been nearly 10,000 hours of
trail-side volunteer time logged, in which volunteers have removed over 34,500
pounds of trash. Volunteers are not only cleaning the river water but are
planting native trees, shrubs, and grasses along the Jordan River bank. This
practice helps reinforce the integrity of the river banks as well as native
plant populations. There has been over 900 new native trees, shrubs, and
grasses planted to date. If you would like to join these efforts in cleaning up
the Jordan River area contact the Jordan River Commission. They offer volunteer
programs from April 1st through October 30th each year. They will provide you
with tools, gloves, water, trash bags and snacks.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
There
have been great efforts made to restore the Jordan River to its original beauty
but without the continued effort of the Jordan River community, that beauty may
once again be lost. If you would like to learn more about the Jordan River or
would like to start helping yourself, contact any of the organizations below.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Written by: David Petersen, James Thomas, Saena Fukui, Kurtis Prewett, and Valeriya Yukhimova </span><br />
<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><br /></b>
<b>Sources:</b><br />
<br />
1)Bureau, U.S. Census. State & County Quickfacts. 28 05 2015. http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/49/49035.html.<br />
<br />
2) O'Donoghue, Joi. "Jordan River cleanup monumental, but not impossible." Deseret News 10 August 2011.<br />
<br />
3) http://jordanrivercommission.com/restoration-projects-and-open-space-along-the-jordan-river/<br />
<br />
4) http://jordanrivercommission.com/teacher-resources/<br />
<br />
5) http://jordanrivercommission.com/be-a-citizen-scientist/<br />
<br />
6) http://www.rules.utah.gov/publicat/code/r317/r317-002.htm<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Contact information:</b><br />
<br />
Utah Water Watch. Brian Green (435) 797-2580 brain.green@usu.edu<br />
<br />
Citizen Science with the Tracy Aviary. Carolina Roa (801) 596-8500 carolinar@tracyaviary.org<br />
<br />
Jordan River Comission. Holly Newell (317) 694-7945 http://jordanrivercommission.com/contact/</div>
Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-31953797980054031842015-06-27T22:01:00.000-06:002015-07-03T14:58:35.710-06:00The Solar World: Will Poverty or Power Embrace Progress?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Alm8vHmyDoE/VYewa5Vt9JI/AAAAAAAAAMA/m7c31x-4tRg/s1600/solar-panels.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Alm8vHmyDoE/VYewa5Vt9JI/AAAAAAAAAMA/m7c31x-4tRg/s400/solar-panels.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
As of 2014, the leading countries in terms of electricity
production by solar cells was as follows [1]:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1) Germany 35.5 gigawatts<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2) China 18.3 gigawatts<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3) Italy 17.6 gigawatts<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4) Japan 13.6<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5) USA 12<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6) Spain 5.6<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7) France 4.6<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8) Australia 3.3<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9) Belgium 3<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
10) The United Kingdom 2.9<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
12) India 2.3<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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But don’t get comfortable with the status quo, because the
order on this list is bound to get shaken up by countries like China who
increased its solar power production by 60 times in the last 4 years, rising
from 8<sup>th</sup> to 2<sup>nd</sup> in that same timeframe! India is also a rising star and countries
like Brazil, South Africa, and Nigeria might also become contenders depending
on how they carry themselves over the coming years. Other countries that are on the list now,
like Spain, , the USA, Germany, and France might find themselves sinking in ranking as
other countries make stronger commitments to renewable energies and as internal
political wars against fossil fuel and nuclear electricity producers and their allies stifle further progress.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<u>THE UNITED STATES’ OUTLOOK<o:p></o:p></u></div>
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<br /></div>
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As amazing as it might sound, “wind and solar accounted for
all new (electricity) generating capacity placed in-service in April,” according
to the April 2015 Energy Infrastructure Update report from the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission's (FERC) Office of Energy Projects, in the United States.
[2]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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And what’s more, this is beginning to be the trend. Slowly-but-surely, a greater and greater
proportion of energy production is coming from renewable sources. This is true for both the USA and the world
at large. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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In fact, wind, solar, geothermal, and hydropower account for
84.1 percent of the 1,900 MW of new U.S. electrical generating capacity placed
into service since the beginning of 2015. “This includes 1,170 MW of wind (61.5
percent), 362 MW of solar (19.1 percent), 45 MW of geothermal steam (2.4 percent), and 21 MW of hydropower (1.1
percent). The rest (302 MW) was provided by five units of natural gas.” [2] <o:p></o:p></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3jt40FfBb2I/VYewrebsaMI/AAAAAAAAAMw/CpoJvoYGXyM/s1600/Siemens-6MW-Wind-Turbine-537x402.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="297" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3jt40FfBb2I/VYewrebsaMI/AAAAAAAAAMw/CpoJvoYGXyM/s400/Siemens-6MW-Wind-Turbine-537x402.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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The total contribution to electric generation by geothermal,
hydropower, solar, and wind for 2014 was 1,611 MW, plus 116 MW from
biomass.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the same period in 2014,
natural gas added 1,518 MW of new capacity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Oil added just 1 MW and coal and nuclear provided no new capacity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Renewable
energy sources accounted for half of all new generating capacity added in 2014</b>.
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“Renewable energy sources now account for 17.05 percent of
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Renewable energy capacity is now greater than that of
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Note however that <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">generating
capacity</b> is not the same as <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">actual
generation</b>. Although renewable energy sources in the United States could
generate a maximum of 17.05% of all electricity, the actual amount of total
electricity generated is about 13.4%. [2] Some reasons for the difference are
that solar can’t produce as much electricity on a cloudy day nor at night and
for wind power there is no place on Earth where it is always windy and blowing
at the same velocity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Differences in
environmental conditions can lead to less output than optimal for solar, wind
and other renewable energy sources.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VH7Hft0Q0nU/VYewk9cn48I/AAAAAAAAAMg/i7tXHAvwD2g/s1600/Geothermal_Energy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="266" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VH7Hft0Q0nU/VYewk9cn48I/AAAAAAAAAMg/i7tXHAvwD2g/s400/Geothermal_Energy.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>THE SUN IN AFRICA</u><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The International Energy Agency has predicted that
sub-Saharan Africa would require $300+ billion in investment to achieve
universal electricity access by 2030.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In October 2013, President Obama launched the Power Africa
Initiative, designed to bring power to the approximately 70% of 800 million
people living in sub-Saharan Africa who have no access to electricity. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As part of the initiative the United States
government committed $7 billion with nearly three times as much invested by
private industry to improve both infrastructure and capacity for electrical
generation. [3]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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“This initiative is an important step towards dealing with
climate change not to mention foreign relations and international development.
The initiative gives the U.S. a leadership role in addressing a range of
critical regional and global issues – eradicating poverty, improving health and
gender equality, opening up economic opportunity and conserving ecosystems and
natural resources as well as promoting clean, renewable energy.” [3]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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“After just one year, committed Power Africa projects were
predicted to provide enough electricity to power more than 5 million African homes,
businesses, schools, and clinics — one-quarter of the program's goal. Momentum
continues to rise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Last August President
Obama tripled the Power Africa goal to installing an aggregate 30,000 MW of new
sustainable generation capacity and expanding access to electricity to at least
60 million households and businesses across all 28 sub-Saharan African nations.
In addition, he pledged the U.S. would raise monetary support for Power Africa
to $300 million per year.” [3]<o:p></o:p></div>
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The initiative headed by the Obama Administration “is
implementing a new model of development in emerging-market countries, one
focused on private-sector participation and capacity building.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Too often, low-income countries have been
made subservient to more well to do nations through charity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the past, the aims and efforts of
better-off nations to help disadvantaged nations largely ignored the issue of
economic investment to make them self-sufficient.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather than helping these disadvantaged
nations to grow economically and politically towards self-sufficiency, they
only received enough aid to survive, but not to develop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There was donated aid, but no real investment
that could lead to real improvements in circumstance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Recent efforts such as the Power Africa
Initiative reflect a wiser and more informed approach towards helping
low-income nations develop, mainly by sharing resources, investing, and filling
in gaps in different capacities such as legal, financial, technological, infrastructural,
and operational so as to significantly improve overall likelihood of success.
[3]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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On the private sector side, groups like the U.S. African
Development Foundation (USADF) offer $100,000 grants to African-owned and
operated businesses as well as Pay-as-you-go loans to provide batteries, set up
solar panels, microgrid access and smart metering. [3]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>WAITING FOR THE LIGHT OF INDIA TO SHINE</u><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Electricity consumption in India has been increasing at one
of the fastest rates in the world due to population growth and economic
development.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With a population near 1.3
billion (yes, that is 4X the size of the USA’s population) that is growing with
no sign of plateauing, as can be imagined, India has some major energy needs
and concerns.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And while getting
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not realized, the reliability of electricity provided to those who have it is
also sketchy in many areas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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In fact, “on July 30th and 31st, 2012 the world's largest
blackout, The Great Indian Outage, stretching from New Delhi to Kolkata
occurred. This blackout, due to failure of the northern power grid, caused
nearly 700 million people — twice the population of the United States (or about
10% of the world’s human population) — to be without electricity.” [4]<o:p></o:p></div>
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And besides holding the undesirable record for largest power
outage ever recorded, India also has “energy shortages (as much as 15% daily)
almost everywhere in the country.” [4] <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is not just bad for the people of India,
many of whom live in the dark wilderness of poverty; it is also bad for the
economy and India’s prospects of continuing to grow its middle class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-z-JT7XRSjo4/VYeweHRO0RI/AAAAAAAAAMI/bCpI0qdwAJ0/s1600/1024px-Indian_states_affected_by_July_2012_power_cuts.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="400" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-z-JT7XRSjo4/VYeweHRO0RI/AAAAAAAAAMI/bCpI0qdwAJ0/s400/1024px-Indian_states_affected_by_July_2012_power_cuts.svg.png" width="352" /></a></div>
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The area affected by the Great Indian Outage is colored in
red in the above image.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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India has pledged to grow the amount of electricity produced
by solar from the current 2.3 to 20 gigawatts by 2020 (In 2014 India generated
about 200 gigawatts of electricity in total).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This would not only be good for the economy and the people, but it would
also be good for the environment by reducing pollution, the release of greenhouse
gases and demand for fossil fuels in general.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It could reduce pollution by reducing the need for fossil fuel
electricity generating plants, but also by increasing the efficacy and economy
of electric hybrid cars which outperform gas cars in urban areas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, for a country like India where many
people live in rural poor areas as well as urban poor areas, solar offers a
decentralized source of electricity that “empowers people at the grassroots
level.” [4]<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Currently, India has over
289 million people living in poor, remote areas without any electricity who
could be producing their own, in their own locales, if only the solar panels
were more forthcoming.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>India’s
government is doing its best to make this happen, both internally and by enlisting international support. [4]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qsPrYgkxjbI/VYewit7B0YI/AAAAAAAAAMY/cZExUrxzLOo/s1600/aworkerspray.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="262" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qsPrYgkxjbI/VYewit7B0YI/AAAAAAAAAMY/cZExUrxzLOo/s400/aworkerspray.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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In fact, if India could just harness 10% of the incoming
radiation coming from the sun, it could power all of the country’s energy
needs. A similar story can be told for practically any country that isn't living under a cloud or in perpetual night (which is practically every country).<o:p></o:p></div>
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<u>INERTIA: AN EDITORIAL COMMENT</u><o:p></o:p></div>
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What’s most frustrating about solar power implementation for me is that it has such a slow trajectory which should not be the case considering that solar power is no longer hindered by technological nor economic barriers (solar panels
have become ever more efficient, affordable and reliable), rather it is
hindered by politics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The USA, in
particular, has no excuse for not working towards a renewable future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We have the wealth, we just don’t have the
will to overcome the standoff with the old guard fossil fuel industry and their corporate cronies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> For sure, as the article started out, renewable energy is starting to take to the market, but solar remains as less than 0.5% of total USA energy production. </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">0.5% is a joke for modern times. Even in Germany, which is the leader for now in solar electricity production, can only claim ~7% of its electricity comes from solar (35% comes from renewables). For many years the USA has raged a war on terrorism which has sacrificed endless lives and wealth to that cause. How is holding the future hostage at the behest of those who care more about personal gain than the well-being of the masses any less an act of terrorism? There are issues of poverty, overpopulation, inequity, pollution, dwindling resources and climate change bearing down on us, but we must act in denial because we have a gun to our heads, held by the jeweled hands of those who insist we keep repeating that all these problems are just dreams. </span></div>
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In other countries like India, where a
significant proportion of the population is living in extreme poverty, with little prospect for fulfilling their human potential, renewable energy could be a real saving grace, but again, corruption and lack
of political will on the part of the government leads to the continued
suffering of people who wait in the dark.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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The truth is that those with the most to lose by the
implementation of renewable energy are a few oligarchic monopolists, while the
average-majority stand with a lot to gain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Solar panels are a threat to fossil fuel companies and their relatives because they will
decentralize/democratize economic control of energy production.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The sun doesn’t come from a mine or pump in a
certain country in a certain location that can only be bought for top dollar from a privileged owner. The sun shines on every being on this Earth, irrespective of their standing.<o:p></o:p></div>
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So who will be first to overcome this stagnant era of
inertia?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The desperate poor who see
progress as the only road to a life that amounts to more than mere
survival?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or will it be the wealthy, who
have the resources to invest in change, but who as of yet seem content with the
status-unsustainable-quo?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> At this point it is near impossible to tell. </span>But why is it that
every option seems so extreme?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How can
something as simple as a solar panel be the source of so much petty animosity
and resistance to the future?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It isn’t
like whether we choose to harvest electricity from solar radiation or not will
stop the sun from shining.<br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-z2WalhGmkVI/VYewpMa-VmI/AAAAAAAAAMo/QelswdFdV6w/s1600/o-WHAT-IF-THE-SUN-DISAPPEARED-facebook.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="400" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-z2WalhGmkVI/VYewpMa-VmI/AAAAAAAAAMo/QelswdFdV6w/s400/o-WHAT-IF-THE-SUN-DISAPPEARED-facebook.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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-Seth Commichaux<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Sources:<o:p></o:p></div>
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1) <a href="http://pureenergies.com/us/blog/top-10-countries-using-solar-power/">http://pureenergies.com/us/blog/top-10-countries-using-solar-power/<o:p></o:p></a></div>
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2) <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/05/wind-and-solar-account-for-100-percent-of-new-us-generating-capacity-in-april.html">http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/05/wind-and-solar-account-for-100-percent-of-new-us-generating-capacity-in-april.html</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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3) <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/05/renewable-energy-is-beginning-to-power-africa.html">http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/05/renewable-energy-is-beginning-to-power-africa.html</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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4) <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2013/07/indias-renewable-energy-potential-remains-untapped.html#_gus&_gucid=/content/rew/en/articles/2013/07/indias-renewable-energy-potential-remains-untapped&_gup=GSEmail&_gsc=Wro4lwE">http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2013/07/indias-renewable-energy-potential-remains-untapped.html#_gus&_gucid=/content/rew/en/articles/2013/07/indias-renewable-energy-potential-remains-untapped&_gup=GSEmail&_gsc=Wro4lwE</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-82436064127884728762015-05-18T10:28:00.000-06:002015-05-23T21:37:50.911-06:00The Velocity of the Air Around Us<div class="MsoNormal">
Have you ever wondered about how fast molecules are moving
in the air when it’s 75 degrees (Fahrenheit that is) outside?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It might seem on a calm day that the air is
“still” and therefore the molecules aren’t moving very much.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But I think you will be surprised just how
fast molecules are moving (even on a calm day) by walking you through a basic
formula that will help us calculate, at any temperature, what the average speed
of molecules is.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The equation we will be using is called the root mean square
velocity equation.<br />
<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ka7uQOzBzhc/VWFFZqCM3pI/AAAAAAAAALI/ZMwxDcORw7E/s1600/b000ead77855de0d2e75f8827271394f.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ka7uQOzBzhc/VWFFZqCM3pI/AAAAAAAAALI/ZMwxDcORw7E/s1600/b000ead77855de0d2e75f8827271394f.png" /></a></div>
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Don’t be intimidated by the math or the symbols, it’s all
very understandable, and when you understand how to use it can be used to get
very interesting results.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, before we learn how to use this equation and what
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general.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Molecules are almost unimaginably small and can exist in
different phases: mainly solid, liquid, gas and plasma phases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To give us a feel for how small molecules
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7.25 x 10<sup>26</sup> molecules!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That
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one foot box!<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Now if that same box was filled with oxygen in gas phase, it
would still contain 6.97 x 10<sup>23</sup> molecules!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is about a thousand times less dense
than solid phase, but there are still a lot of molecules in that box.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And what is even crazier, is that even though
there are a lot of molecules in this one foot cube, it’s still mostly empty
space because atoms are mostly empty space.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The main point I’m trying to drive home here is that molecules are very,
very tiny and it is very difficult for us to imagine what must be going on down
at that micro level.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Although, it is hard for us to know exactly what is going on
at the molecular level, we do know some things.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One is that molecules are constantly
“vibrating” and “jostling” about and when they are in gas phase they are
constantly moving around and colliding with one another.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, pressure is the result of both the
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collision of molecules, in the gas phase, with the walls of the balloon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And what we experience as temperature, is
also the result of molecules on the move.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In short, the faster molecules move the more temperature and the greater
the pressure they create.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ChFtmVsDj7w/VWFG8iRKb8I/AAAAAAAAALg/m2tIEcKrZH8/s1600/cern-particle-image-600x481.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ChFtmVsDj7w/VWFG8iRKb8I/AAAAAAAAALg/m2tIEcKrZH8/s400/cern-particle-image-600x481.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The root mean square velocity equation captures the
relationship between the mass of molecules, the temperature and their average
velocity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, it tells us
that temperature, and the mass and average velocity of molecules are
proportional; as temperature increases, so does the velocity of molecules; it
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velocity will be relative to other more massive molecules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, helium gas (less massive) will
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
We say “average” here because at a given temperature, at any
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that are moving very slow.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Molecules
that are moving in a straight line, molecules that have just bumped into others
and veered off, and still others that have just hit head on with another
molecule and reversed direction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<br />
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V<sub>rms</sub> is the symbol for the average velocity of
some molecules of interest (in meters per second or meters/second), T is the
temperature (in Kelvin), M<sub>m</sub> is the molar mass of the molecule of
interest (in kilograms per mole or kg/mole), and R is the Ideal Gas Constant
(8.314 Joules/moles x Kelvin).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kelvin is
just another unit of temperature like Fahrenheit or Celsius.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each temperature scale is based upon a
different “zero.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Celsius is zero at the
freezing point of water while the Kelvin scale is zero at absolute zero.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The molar mass of a substance is how much
mass a mole (or 6.022 x 10<sup>23</sup>) of them possesses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you wanted to know how much the molar mass
of basketballs was, you’d have to weigh out 6.022 x 10<sup>23</sup>
basketballs. A mole is just a number of something much like a dozen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s a number that gets used a lot by
chemists and physicists because most things that we deal with at our level are
composed of so many atoms or molecules that it’s much easier to say, “this
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baseball is composed of eighteen point eight zero six six times ten to the
twenty third power of molecules.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So how fast are molecules, lets say oxygen molecules, moving
in the air on a 75 degree Fahrenheit day?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
First we have to convert 75 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius
and then to Kelvin, because the equation will only work with temperature in
these units.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We can do this all on the Internet
by just typing Fahrenheit to Celsius or Fahrenheit to Kelvin.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
75 degrees Fahrenheit = 23.9 degrees Celsius = 297.15 Kelvin<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Then we have to look up the molar mass of a molecule of
oxygen on the periodic table and convert it to kilograms.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_M_be5lP8KY/VWFGTrt0gAI/AAAAAAAAALY/kqmDBEUKfF8/s1600/Oxygen_Tile.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_M_be5lP8KY/VWFGTrt0gAI/AAAAAAAAALY/kqmDBEUKfF8/s200/Oxygen_Tile.png" width="200" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
<br />
The mass is 15.999 atomic mass units (amu) which is also
equal to 15.999 grams/mole, but in order to do our calculations correctly we need
to know that the oxygen in the air we breathe exists as a diatomic molecule (as
two oxygen atoms bonded together by a double bond).<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-phhoEz-TIks/VWFGB9wTX6I/AAAAAAAAALQ/ArTdFMsrXnE/s1600/covalent_bond_oxygen_2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-phhoEz-TIks/VWFGB9wTX6I/AAAAAAAAALQ/ArTdFMsrXnE/s1600/covalent_bond_oxygen_2.jpg" /></a></div>
O=O</div>
<br />
Therefore the mass needs to be doubled, 15.999 x 2 = 31.998
atomic mass units (31.998 grams/mole).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>To get it into kilograms we have to divide by one thousand because there
are a thousand grams in a kilogram.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If
we divide 31.998 by 1000 we get 0.031998 kilograms/mole.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Let’s remember our equation we’ll be using.<br />
<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ka7uQOzBzhc/VWFFZqCM3pI/AAAAAAAAALI/ZMwxDcORw7E/s1600/b000ead77855de0d2e75f8827271394f.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ka7uQOzBzhc/VWFFZqCM3pI/AAAAAAAAALI/ZMwxDcORw7E/s1600/b000ead77855de0d2e75f8827271394f.png" /></a></div>
<br />
When we plug in all of our numbers we get an expression that
looks something like this,</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
V<sub>rms</sub> = <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">√ 3 x</span> (8.314 Joules/moles x Kelvin) x
(297.15 Kelvin) / (0.031998 kg/mole)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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More simply, we just need to multiply 3,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>8.314 and 297.15.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then divide by 0.031998.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And finally, square root our answer.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If we do all of these calculations we get an answer of 481.3
meters/second or 1077 miles per hour!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This means that on a “still” day when the temperature is 75 degrees
Fahrenheit, the oxygen molecules in the air, on average, are moving the same
speed as .22 caliber bullets………which is, by the way, faster than the speed of
sound!<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OolQ3jDKyz4/VWFHgRL5xvI/AAAAAAAAALs/RyRm50sq0u0/s1600/queen-bullet1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OolQ3jDKyz4/VWFHgRL5xvI/AAAAAAAAALs/RyRm50sq0u0/s1600/queen-bullet1.png" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So, why, if molecules are moving so fast, don’t we feel a
constant hurricane?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How can there be
anything like a calm day?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Well as it turns out, even though on average molecules are
moving pretty fast, they collide so often with one another (it is estimated, in
gas phase at normal atmospheric pressure, that any given molecule will
experience about a billion collisions per second!) and as result change course
so often, that in essence they move very fast, but in a very confined space and
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place if you like.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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So there you have it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Hopefully, you endured the math and saw how a very simple tool like the
root mean square velocity equation can tell us something very profound and
amazing about the world around us.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
--Seth Commichaux<o:p></o:p></div>
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Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-7248357427553713262015-04-19T15:56:00.000-06:002015-04-28T11:25:55.018-06:00The Architectural Genius of ANTS!!!Ants have very sophisticated societies and social lives. It is their social organization that allows them to accomplish tremendous feats compared to their size. Whether this is biologically hard-wired or is learned or cultural or some mixture of these influences is a topic not yet resolved, but the outcomes of their collective efforts are there for us to wonder at.<br />
<br />
More specifically, this blog is about their colony structure. And more specifically, the colony structure of those ants who build their homes underground. Ants build many kinds of houses, which also double as fortresses, to live in and their structure can vary greatly from species-to-species.<br />
<br />
Some ants build bivouacs which are "a structure formed by migratory driver ant and army ant colonies<i></i>. A bivouac nest is constructed out of the living ant workers' own bodies to protect the queen and larvae, and is later deconstructed as the ants move on." (3)<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="" class="mw-mmv-final-image mw-mmv-dialog-is-open" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Army_ant_bivouac.jpg/1024px-Army_ant_bivouac.jpg" height="267" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A BIVOUAC</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Other ants build mounds out of clay or pine needles that rise high above the ground.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img alt="" height="450" src="https://sp.yimg.com/ib/th?id=JN.SQOsamzl8%2b4sayCCX0XSzg&pid=15.1&P=0" style="height: 450px; width: 600px;" width="600" /> </div>
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Still others build nest of leaves woven together with silk threads.<br />
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<img alt="" src="http://www.firstpr.com.au/show-and-tell/green-ants/DSC00276-Green-Ant-nest-in-mangrove-leaves.jpg" height="300" id="yui_3_5_1_4_1429637864706_778" width="400" /></div>
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And as you will see in the videos below, there are many ants that build their homes underground and the variation, both in size and structure, of these underground engineering feats is staggering, with each species and colony doing things slightly differently.<br />
<br />
These homes that ants build are clean. You'd think that with such high numbers, sometimes in the millions or billions, of individuals living in such close proximity there would be lots of diseases and epidemics, but ants are very clean, keeping their colonies hygienic, sealing off parts of the colony that become infected and quarantining individuals who get sick. They even know how to use antibiotics, gathering plants with anitmicrobial activity to scrub down their colonies in the event they get infected. They also have rooms where waste goes and when they're full they are sealed off. <br />
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Ants also build homes that are buffered against environmental fluctuations with climate control. Irrespective of what's going on outside an ant colony tends to have a steady air circulation and constant humidity and temperature because of the engineering genius of these structures. This has allowed ants to live in the barrenest deserts and above the Arctic Circle.<br />
<br />
What's more, ant colonies tend to grow like trees, in the sense that just as trees gain more rings as they age, ant colonies tend to get bigger and bigger, with more compartments and/or multiple interconnected colonies, as the colony ages. Some ant colonies are measured to be over 800 years old!!! Colonies can outlive their members just as nations can. This being the case while the average worker only lives a few weeks to a few months while the queen can live for decades.<br />
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Many ant societies have a division of labor of varying complexity. Some with general workers, nurses, cleaners, guards, police, managers/supervisors, queens and drones, tunnel miners, scouts, herders, gardeners, food gatherers, hunters etc.. Similarly, their underground colony structures tend to be divided up into specialized compartments.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img alt="" class="size-full wp-image-3339 alignnone" src="http://www.cmoe.com/blog/wp-content/images/Ant-Farm.jpg" height="270" title="Ant-Farm" width="550" /> </div>
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From storage rooms to trash rooms, the queens' egg laying quarters to the nursery, the room where aphids are kept to rest rooms, to sleeping quarters, to processing rooms and quarantine rooms, etc., etc., etc.. An ant colony is pretty much like a city. And not all of these cities are so small. <br />
<br />
Some ant colonies have been found that are over 670 acres in size (over a square mile!)! One in Australia is over 62 miles wide!! These colonies have billions of ants and thousands or even millions of queens. And somehow, through leaving chemical scents and feeling each other with their antennae all of these ants are able to figure out who belongs to their colony and who doesn't, immediately attacking intruders.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img alt="" src="http://www.matthewlynchpestcontrol.com.au/uploads/images/About%20Us.jpg" height="300" id="yui_3_5_1_4_1429481992771_775" width="400" /> </div>
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More recently, nation like conglomerates of non-aggressive colonies have been found that stretch over 3000 miles in Europe, 500 miles in California and a 100 miles in Japan. If an ant is taken from one end and another from one hundred miles away meet they won't attack each other, instead treating one another as if they were from the same colony or nation.<br />
<br />
For a long time people wondered about what ants were doing underground. What their underground houses looked like. How they survived rainstorms and snowstorms. A technique was developed to cast the structure of these underground colonies.<br />
<br />
I don't know about the morality of destroying all of the ants in the process of making these casts, (some of the makers claim that they only cast molds when the colonies are abandoned or if the colony is destined for extermination because it is a nuisance, but hopefully in the future there will be more humane ways of figuring out their structure without having to kill whole colonies of ants), but the videos below shed light on ants and their underground abodes like nothing I've ever seen before. (It seems to become more of an ethical dilemma for me, the more I learn about how magnificent these creatures are). These casts magnificently show what the structure of the underground colonies are in all their intricacies. These videos show the amazing engineering feats that ants are pulling off to survive the conditions thrown at them by the world.<br />
<br />
The following videos show castings of the underground networks made by the colonies of various species of ant. They are all quite remarkable and show how different species evolved different aesthetics and architectures depending on their environment and societal demands. Especially for the fourth video it is almost impossible to believe that such small creatures could pull off such building feats and it is truly mysterious to think what these creatures' lives must be like under the surface. Also, many of them have such stunning architecture it calls into question the definition of intelligence and what can be made possible when beings work together. Each is a few minutes long, but all are worth watching.<br />
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<span id="goog_1414513546">Here are some other images of ant colonies cast by Walter Tschinkel:</span><br />
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<span id="goog_1414513546"><img alt="" src="http://www.ufunk.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Walter-Tschinkel-ant-colony-2.jpg" height="813" id="yui_3_5_1_4_1429481658483_714" style="height: 582px; width: 437px;" width="610" /> </span><br />
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<span id="goog_1414513546">Besides art, I don't know what to call some of these marvels. One has to wonder if these structures don't shed some light on the psychology of ants much like art can tell us something about the psychological state of humans.</span><br />
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<span id="goog_1414513546"><img alt="" src="http://www.ufunk.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Walter-Tschinkel-ant-colony-6.jpg" height="1127" id="yui_3_5_1_4_1429481691230_708" style="height: 582px; width: 316px;" width="610" /> </span><br />
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<img alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiB9rpn_nrM0xm_flwrFYdZr31GXxRggZzl6RTYVR5fQFBKuzGo_UODjyqsMSQpMoYHWdQYLxPUVH76KrlZaRuqOI2NT3UzGU6Up3_F07k8lxyfwyhONZaOjaX3Kq_XSDV_SQMIycymMZ6n/s1600/anthill1.jpg" height="800" id="yui_3_5_1_4_1429481747466_714" style="height: 582px; width: 440px;" width="604" /><br />
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Seth Commichaux<br />
<br />
Sources:<br />
1) http://www.cmoe.com/blog/the-team-approach-with-teamwork-anything-is-possible.htm<br />
2) http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8127000/8127519.stm<br />
3) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivouac_%28ants%29 Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-23337110618774790312015-03-08T21:20:00.002-06:002015-03-25T10:17:50.736-06:00Gambling With The Future: The Fight Over The Implementation of Renewable Energy in Utah<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>The Nature of the Debate</b></u></span> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The State of Utah Public Service Commission has a running docket about the cost-benefit analysis/debate over Pacificorp's Net Metering Program, which is about whether Pacificorp should have to pay, and how much they should pay, customers who net produce more solar power than they consume from the grid, especially as the community of residential solar power energy producers grows. It also questions what responsibility energy producing companies have to promote a better future.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Net metering
is a policy designed to foster private investment in renewable energy.
In the United States, as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, all
public electric utilities are required to make available upon request
net metering to their customers..... Current law requires all utilities to offer net metering upon request,
which implies no limits, and is in conflict with state laws which do set
a limit." (9)(10) </span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Code Ann. § 54-15-102, which states:<br />(12) Net metering program means a program administered by an electrical corporation whereby a customer with a customer generation system may:<br /> <br />(a) generate electricity primarily for the customer’s own use;<br /><br />(b) supply customer-generated electricity to the electrical corporation; and<br /><br />(c) if net metering results in excess customer-generated electricity during a billing period, receive a credit as provided in Section 54-15-104. </span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The debate began when Rocky Mountain Power (here I'll use interchangeably with Pacificorp, which is its parent company) moved to raise a fee of $4.65/month on net metering customers. Because Net Metering issues are governed by state and federal laws, Rocky Mountain Power couldn't just raise its rates on net metering customers without first getting approval from the state and hence the Utah Public Service Commission mediating the public debate. </span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Utah Code Ann. § 54-15-105.1 of the NEM statute, which provides that:<br />The governing authority shall:<br />(1) determine, after appropriate notice and opportunity for public comment, whether costs that the electrical corporation or other customers will incur from a net metering program will exceed the benefits of the net metering program, or whether the benefits of the net metering program will exceed the costs; and<br />(2) determine a just and reasonable charge, credit, or ratemaking structure, including new or existing tariffs, in light of the costs and benefits. </span></span><br />
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Utah Code Ann. § 54-15-105.1 Requires Consideration of the Costs and Benefits of the “Net Metering Program” (Not Solely of the “Net Electricity”) Which Necessarily Entails the Costs of the Entire Production from Participating Customers’ Distributed Generation (“DG”) Systems</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The rationale Pacificorp used for the fee was that customers, who contribute energy generated from solar panels to the grid, should have to pay more for grid maintenance because "feeding small amounts of electricity from net
meter customers to their neighbors results in increased "wear and tear"
on the grid, and requires more frequent maintenance." They also argue that customers who produce electricity with solar panels that goes back out into the grid should have to pay for the general use and maintenance of the grid.</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Company supports development of cost-effective renewable energy. But that development must not be at the expense of customers who choose not, or cannot afford, to install <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation">distributed generation</a>. Moreover, voluntary actions taken by individual customers for their own personal reasons cannot shift expenses to the utility, as TASC and Sierra now advocate. Customers partially relying on renewable energy and the net metering program must still pay their fair share of the costs to serve them and to provide them with reliable backup power, and to provide them a grid through which they receive credit for their excess generation. As discussed below, the net metering program as currently structured unfairly shifts costs from net metering customers to all other customers. (1)</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">NOTE: As of 2014, there were approximately 2,500 residential net metering customers of Rocky Mountain Power as compared to their 800,000 non-net metering customers in Utah. (1) </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">At first, in August, the commission ruled that Pacificorp couldn't apply the fee until they could prove factually that net metering customers were incurring higher maintenance costs. Net metering customers who would be affected by this new "maintenance" fee and environmental groups such as UCARE, the Sierra Club and Utah Clean Energy had argued that if anything, people who were switching to solar were actually reducing the maintenance costs of the grid because they were using less kilowatt-hours and were striving to be more energy efficient in general. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rocky Mountain Power, convinced of its position, went forward by doing a study of electricity use and maintenance costs for its customers, comparing net metering customers with customers who only consume electricity. The study was highly criticized by customers and environmental groups alike for being non-representative, biased and incomplete. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pacificorp has not given up the struggle for the fee, threatening that the cost for increased maintenance caused by net metering customers, if not paid for by them, will inevitably be passed on to all customers in the form of higher rates. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Over time the debate has heated up and taken on global proportions by including global issues.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An argument posed by net metering customers and aformentioned environmental groups is that net meter customers should not have to pay more because their conversion to producing solar energy is net beneficial for the environment, the economy and public health when compared with the adverse impacts of fossil fuel burning for electricity generation. It is also argued by the same parties that introducing a unique fee for solar power generators who contribute to the grid would have a chilling effect on the use of renewable energies, which is detrimental to the economy, the environment and public health, especially in the face of modern problems such as climate change and environmental pollution. The debate also centers around whether or not Pacificorp has a responsibility to be modernizing towards renewable sources of energy production, perhaps paying a carbon tax/fine, knowing that fossil fuel burning for electricity production is contributing to environmental degradation and climate change, perhaps even contributing to adverse health impacts in Utah's public via air and water pollution. (1) <a href="http://psc.utah.gov/utilities/electric/elecindx/2014/14035114indx.html">http://psc.utah.gov/utilities/electric/elecindx/2014/14035114indx.html</a>. </span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pacificorp hasn't dedicated any attention to the
"externalized" costs of burning fossil fuels to produce electricity.
These real-world health care, economic, and environmental costs of
burning carbon are shifted from Rocky Mountain Power's financial calculations to our
families and communities. (1)</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">To counter these arguments, Pacificorp's latest addition to the docket comes out with guns blazing calling the "avoided costs for healthcare, environmental clean-up or other intangible societal benefits" by the use of solar or other renewable resources as "unquantifiable" and "speculative." (12)</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"While the Company knows with a degree of certainty what its fuel costs are, the same cannot be said for avoided health or environmental impacts from displacement of fossil fuels-based resources." (12)</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">And because all these impacts are "unquantifiable" and "speculative" Rocky Mountain Power continues by absolving itself of all responsibility in argument 5.</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">V. The Company Does Not Have the Burden of Proof to Support Costs And Benefits of the Net Metering Program. </span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In response to arguments such as Don Gren's:</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div style="font-family: serif; left: 721.091px; top: 546.537px;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"There are benefits to Rocky Mountain Power that solar contributes to the electrical
system (i.e. less carbon fuel burned, less need for more powerplants,
fewer transmission costs and less energy lost on transmission lines,
reuced EPA compliance costs, and less vulnerability to fossil fuel price fluctuations........ As well as solar's value to the State
and its citizens in offsetting the costs (healthcare, economic, and
environmental) of burning fossil fuels to produce electricity." </span></span></div>
</blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pacificorp counters:</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Assuming some intervenors’ arguments to be true (though unproven) that subsidizing residentially-produced renewable electricity at the expense of other customers will provide a benefit of reducing the use of fossil fuels, the Commission must necessarily consider such things as loss of jobs, loss of network reliability, and loss of profit margins for small businesses as they grapple with dramatically rising electricity prices, and so forth. All of these things would negatively impact the economy. All of these would need to be considered and are probably more quantifiable than the hypothetical societal, health and environmental “benefits” of displacing base load resources. Value should not be attributed to alleged fuel price hedging,
fuel price volatility and environmental risk factors, as well as to
societal and health risk factors. They are based on divergent and speculative projections and are not
costs the Company incurs to provide service. (12)</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">According to Pacificorp, the quantifiable benefits of the solar output generated as part of the net metering
program include a) avoided energy costs and b) avoided capacity costs. These benefits, from their point-of-view, are only net-metering customer specific and thus do not offset the costs that come with the increased costs on the grid incurred by net metering.</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Depending on the electrical characteristics of the distribution system, a high penetration of NEM requires infrastructure upgrades to provide safe and reliable electricity to customers. For example, the upgrades include, without limitation:</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">· replacement of existing voltage regulators, installation of new voltage regulators (particularly on lines with NEM customers heavily clustered at the end of the line);<br />· increased maintenance of voltage regulators due to the impact of cloud cover resulting in an increased number of operations;<br />· replacement of distribution transformers;<br />· upgrading or replacement of existing line reclosers or protective relays and installation of new line reclosures to replace existing fuses where protection coordination may be impacted due to large amounts of NEM connections on the feeder; and <br />· installation and maintenance of additional substation equipment such as dead-line check.</span></span></blockquote>
</blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rocky Mountain Power closes their argument by essentially claiming that all objections to their proposed fee on net metering customers are politically motivated and thus not worthy of consideration:</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">And although at least one party in this case sees it as a decision that rewards “smart customer choices” for “smart and engaged … distributed solar customers,” the Company views it as a decision that would force subsidies to support certain customers’ social, political and economic choices at the expense of others. (12)</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There is an especially strange line in Pacificorp's argument that I'd like to address later:</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Company submits that policies that artificially boost a specific
type of renewable energy rather than targeting emission reductions from
any source, in particular at the expense of Utah customers and at the
expense of the utility, is not good policy.</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Getting To Know Pacificorp</b></u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Before we parse the details of the debate previously mentioned, I felt it would be good for us to get to know Pacificorp a little bit, locally known as Rocky Mountain Power, Utah's major electricity provider. On their website Pacificorp describes itself as "one of the West’s leading utilities. It operates as
Pacific Power in Oregon, Washington and California; and as Rocky
Mountain Power in Utah, Wyoming and Idaho. Balancing growing energy
needs with costs and the environment is an ongoing focus for the
company." (2) <a href="http://www.pacificorp.com/index.html">http://www.pacificorp.com/index.html</a></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">It operates 69 generation facilities in the six states that Pacific Power
and Rocky Mountain Power operate in, plus two facilities in Montana,
three in Colorado, and one in Arizona. It serves serves most major cities in Utah, with the following exceptions: Bountiful, Eagle Mountain, Kaysville, Lehi, Provo, Murray, and Logan. Overall it provides power to over 1.4 million residential customers, 202,000
commercial customers, and 34,000 industrial and irrigation customers -
for a total of approximately 1,668,000 customers. 70.6% of the power generation is from thermal sources (i.e. coal or natural
gas), 6.7% from hydroelectric sources, and 0.2% from wind sources. 22.5%
of PacifiCorp Energy's generation is purchased from other suppliers or
under contracts. (3)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pacificorp is a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway Energy (formerly MidAmerican Energy Holdings Company), which is a holding company that is, itself, 89.8% owned by Berkshire Hathaway (controlled by investor Warren Buffet). (4)(5) Berkshire Hathaway Energy holds the following companies: MidAmerican Energy Company, MidAmerican Renewables, PacifiCorp, Northern Powergrid (formerly CE Electric UK), Integrated Utility Services UK, CalEnergy Generation, Kern River Gas Transmission Company, Kern River Pipeline, Northern Natural Gas Company (Omaha), HomeServices of America, BYD Company (10% of outstanding shares), NV Energy, Metalogic Inspections Services, Intelligent Energy Solutions, AltaLink.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The parent company of Berkshire Hathaway Energy is Berkshire Hathaway which has $493 billion worth of assets and according to Forbes is the fifth largest public company in the world. The company wholly owns GEICO, BNSF, Lubrizol, Dairy Queen, Fruit of the Loom, Helzberg Diamonds, FlightSafety International, NetJets, Acme Building Brands, Benjamin Moore and Company, Clayton Homes inc., owns half of Heinz and an undisclosed percentage of Mars, Incorporated, and has significant minority holdings in DIRECTV, Exxon Mobil Corp., Goldman Sachs, Phillips 66, Wal-Mart, The Proctor and Gamble Company, American Express, The Coca-Cola Company, Wells Fargo, IBM and Restaurant Brands International, amongst many others. (4) </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">A holding company is "a <span style="color: black;">company that owns other companies' outstanding stock.
The term usually refers to a company that does not produce goods or
services itself; rather, its purpose is to own shares of other companies
to form a corporate group. Holding companies allow the reduction of risk for the owners and can allow the ownership and control of a number of different companies." (6) </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The point of all this, is that when we're talking about Pacificorp, we're talking about the tip of a massive iceberg of companies-who-own-companies that suspiciously seem like a hierarchy scheme to diffuse liability and to be a monopoly without apparently seeming to be one. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pacificorp fuels 58% of its electricity production with coal and according to its website, "Approximately
one-third of the coal used in the PacifiCorp system is produced from
captive mines. PacifiCorp's mines produce approximately 8.8 million tons
of coal annually from both surface and underground mines. Surface
operations produce approximately 0.6 million tons per year and
underground operations produce approximately 8.2 million tons per year." (2)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">According to its website, it produces renewable energy in the form of geothermal, hydroelectric and wind. (2) Wind power accounts for about 8.8% of their total electricity production and, as far as I could tell, the total amount of energy produced by hydroelectric was 10.8%, and geothermal 0.2%. Additionally, from my calculations it came out to be that fossil fuel burning for electricity production accounted for about 80.2% of the company's total output.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Addressing The Economic and Environmental Costs of Burning Carbon </b></u></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On a factual level Pacificorp's argument is problematic to say the very least and as I hope to have shown in the previous section, one can hardly expect an honest argument out of such a vested hierarchical scheme (Rocky Mountain Power as one branch of Pacificorp which is one branch of Hathaway Berkshire Energy, which is just one branch of Hathaway Berkshire, which is only the 5th largest company in the world!).</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In a statement, Rocky Mountain Power said that there were beginning to be enough net metering customers that it effected normal business operations, which, to me, might be implying that the real motivation behind this public debate is that residential solar panel use is cutting into Pacificorp's profits.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Further proof that Pacificorp's actions are more motivated by the bottom line, than by any other consideration, can be found in a recent Deseret News article titled, "Clean Power: States Told to Reduce Carbon Dioxide; Utah assails Obama's Plan." Therein it talks about "Obama's Clean Power Plan mandating carbon reductions from existing power plants" in effort to address human-caused climate change and how its being received by many states and businesses as an attack on coal. In reality it is an attack on coal because coal power plants are some of the worst point sources of pollution anywhere. According to the White House, Utah power plants produce 31 million metic tons of carbon pollution annually, which equates to the average pollution created by 6.5 million cars over the course of a year. As we all know, carbon pollution is the main culprit of climate change, but this doesn't phase Rocky Mountain Power, the main electricity producer in Utah. In the article it talks about Rocky Mountain Power's resistance to the plan for initiating a greener future. And in some ways their resistance makes sense because, after all, Pacificorp generates the majority of its electricity with coal power plants and much of this is fueled with coal that comes from mines that Pacificorp owns. If you made your money by owning coal mines and producing electricity by burning coal, wouldn't you find it threatening if it was mandated that coal could no longer be used for any of these purposes? But just because, their motivations are understandable does not make their resistance to change excusable, especially when failure to change endangers the health of the environment and society, from here to the future.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">As if there needed to be anymore evidence that climate change is underway as a result of humanity's boundless appetite for combustion, a new study published in Nature journal, "Observational determination of surface radiative forcing by CO<sub>2</sub> from 2000 to 2010," provides more such evidence. </span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Scientists have observed an increase in carbon dioxide's greenhouse
effect at Earth's surface for the first time. They measured atmospheric
carbon dioxide's increasing capacity to absorb thermal radiation emitted
from Earth's surface over an 11-year period at two locations in North
America. They attributed this upward trend to rising carbon dioxide
levels from fossil fuel emissions." (7)</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Climate change, contrary to Pacificorp's claims that it is "unquantifiable and speculative", is a reality with much supporting evidence that is going to have to be dealt with by all humans regardless of agenda. Along with climate change, the deterioration in quality of air, water and the environment are also readily quantifiable and non-speculative outcomes of burning of fossil fuels, </span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Prolonged exposure to toxins from energy production facilities, is tied to (mortality), birth defects, heart disease, asthma attacks, lung disease, learning difficulties, and even lower property values. A 2010 report by the National Research Council (NRC) calculates that particulate matter pollution from U.S. coal-fired power plants is solely responsible for causing approximately 1,530 excess deaths per year. In addition, properties in close proximity to toxic facilities average 15% lower property values. (8)</span></span></blockquote>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">There is also a racial/minorities/poverty and disenfranchised people's component to these adverse effects. For instance,</span></span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Approximately 68% of African Americans live within 30 miles of a coal-fired power plant, which produces the largest proportion of energy compared to any other energy production type. The health conditions associated with exposure to toxins coming from these plants disproportionately affect African Americans. An African American child is three times as likely to be admitted to the hospital and twice more likely to die from an asthma attack than a white American child. Though African Americans are less likely to smoke, they are more likely to die of lung disease than white Americans are. (8)</span></span> </blockquote>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">At the same time, many of the same polluting facilities that affect the daily health and well-being of host communities are major contributors to the greenhouse gases that are driving climate change. Carbon dioxide emissions are the leading cause of climate change and coal-fired power generation accounts for 32% of all carbon dioxide emissions. (8)</span></span></blockquote>
<u><b>ARE THERE SOLUTIONS?</b></u> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">As Abraham Lincoln once said, "</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Determine that the thing can and shall be done, and then we shall find the way</b>." Most problems are not without solutions, but without cooperation they might as well be without solutions. What I don't understand about Pacificorp, and many other companies with similar stature and influence, is that they resist the inevitable rather than being the vanguards. Realizing that climate change, pollution, resource uncertainty and the resulting costs to society in health and wealth are modern realities that must be dealt with, why not just invest in the necessary changes rather than standing in front of the crumbling dam insisting that it's just an illusion? Face it, humans have screwed up a lot of things on this Earth, but it will only be the end of the world if we insist that we haven't and continue down the same old path of destruction. There's nothing inevitable or unavoidable about our current situation nor are the problems we've created unsolvable if we had each other's cooperation and determination to take the facts into account and make the necessary changes.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">So how much energy could renewable sources generate in Utah?</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div data-canvas-width="79.72352" style="left: 161.075px; top: 328.936px; transform: scaleX(0.998208);">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solar power in <b>Utah</b> has the capacity to provide almost a third of all electricity used in the <b>United States</b>. </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">(8)(11)</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solar: Utah has urban utility-scale PV potential of 30,492 GWh (72.2% of total net generation), rural utility-scale PV potential of 5,184,878 GWh (over 100% of total net generation), rooftop PV potential is 7,514 GWh (17.7% of total net generation) and concentrated solar power potential is 5,067,547 GWh (over 100% of total net generation). </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">(8)(11)</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Wind: Onshore wind power potential is 31,552 GWh (74.6% of total net generation). </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">(8)(11)</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Geothermal: Utah has hydrothermal power potential of 12,982 GWh (30.7% of total net generation) and enhanced geothermal systems potential is 939,381 GWh (over 100% of total net generation). (8)(11)</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div data-canvas-width="13.312085333333332" style="left: 951.189px; top: 345.832px; transform: scaleX(1.01619);">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">And besides, Utah has a voluntary renewable energy standard of 20% by 2025. Why not strive to attain a goal worth so much more than money, like individual and societal well-being? (Currently, only about 3% of electricity production in Utah comes from renewables, </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> the other 97% coming from the combustion of fossil fuels, 30% of which leaves the state). (8) </span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sources:</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">1) http://psc.utah.gov/utilities/electric/elecindx/2014/14035114indx.html</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">2) Pacificorp Website http://www.pacificorp.com/index.html</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">3) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PacifiCorp</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">4) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshire_Hathaway</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">5) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshire_Hathaway_Energy<br />6) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holding_company</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">7) http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150225132103.htm</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">8) http://naacp.3cdn.net/65ceef04a8572daf81_tym6blqfc.pdf</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">9) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_metering</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">10) http://web.archive.org/web/20090521131550/http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/states/alternatives/net_metering.cfm</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">11) http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/51946.pdf</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">12) Docket No. 14-035-114 REPLY COMMENTS RESPONDING TO INTERVENOR COMMENTS RELATED TO APPROPRIATE COSTS AND BENEFITS TEST EQUATIONS AND METRICS TO EVALUATE NET METERING PROGRAM<br />13) http://www.pv-tech.org/news/utah_suspends_net_metering_dispute</span></span>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-47395783435538748782015-02-11T10:18:00.000-07:002015-02-11T10:18:54.219-07:00Language and Scientific Inquiry Lesson Plan/ActivityA longstanding and as of yet unresolved question in science is whether or not other species use complex language to communicate. So far, some humans take great pride in thinking that they are the only ones who use complex language. Many approaches have been used to answer this question from trying to teach apes sign language to training dogs and pigeons to recognize hundreds and thousands of symbols and commands to recording and playing back modulated songs to birds to see their response. But as of yet, there is no conclusive evidence that other species use language as complex as say English or Chinese. Science is fairly certain that dolphins and whales know and call one another by name. Many small mammals and birds have specific warning calls that they give that identify different predators to the rest of their communities. Some songbirds know and sing over 200 unique songs and it has also been shown in songbirds that within the same species there are dialects. In the south sparrows might sing with a twang whereas in the New England they sound more academic and snobbish (maybe I need to look up my sources again!) It has also been shown in songbirds that within 30 years, their songs can evolve quite rapidly indicating that their songs are just as much learned as they are genetic. Some parrots and crows and dogs can say human words and sentences, but are they really using language or are they just mimicking human voices? (Sometimes the way some people talk I have to wonder if the same question can't be asked there as well!)<br />
<br />
In a minute I'm going to guide you through a scientific inquiry about whether or not a robin in a youtube video is using language, but first let's start on a historical note about a dead language that took 2000 years to decode: Cuneiform.<br />
<br />
<img src="http://i-cias.com/e.o/slides/cuneiform01.jpg" height="412" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="617" /><br />
<br />
Cuneiform originated in Sumer (Southern Iraq) and is the earliest known system of written language, dating back to around 6000-5500 years ago. It was used for nearly 3000 years before it went extinct around the year 150 C.E. At that time all speakers and all of those who knew how to read it were dead. It wasn't until the 1800s before people began to fully decipher it although Greeks, Romans, Persians and Arabs had noticed it and wondered about it when they traveled to the region and saw it on monuments and clay tablets. In fact, Medieval Persian and Arab scholars were the first known people to try to systematically decipher Cuneiform and although they were largely unsuccessful they did figure out some things.<br />
<br />
Cuneiform began as a pictogram, accounting system for keeping track of trade transactions, but over thousands of years became a complex written language. The characters started out as symbols for objects and words, but gradually morphed into a hodgepodge of that as well as characters that represented phonetic syllables much like our alphabet. Below is an image that shows the evolution of the character for head over 3000 years.<br />
<br />
<img alt="Evolution of the cuneiform sign SAG "head", 3000–1000 B.C.E." data-file-height="218" data-file-width="1573" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/SAG.svg/400px-SAG.svg.png" height="55" width="400" /><br />
<br />
Deciphering Cuneiform was a process that can help us appreciate the difficulty of scientific inquiry as a process. This is because it often takes many minds working over many generations to make progress on difficult questions. The question people faced when they saw Cuneiform was, "what is this? Is it meaningful?" At first, when nothing was known about Cuneiform because all of its speakers and scribes were dead, it was a hypothesis that it was a written language. It very well could have been just so many scribbles or it could have been a system of numbers with no words. When you first looked at the stone tablet above, if you had known nothing about Cuneiform, would you have guessed that it was a language? Considering the evidence, that it was found on clay tablets, monuments and temple and building walls, it seems a good hypothesis that Cuneiform was a language and that's what people ran with.<br />
<img src="http://www.odlt.org/images/akadian_cuneiform_script.gif" height="232" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 90px;" width="397" /> <br />
<br />
Pietro Della Valle, an Italian who had traveled to the Near East in the early 1600s, hypothesized after seeing many examples of Cuneiform that it must be read left-to-right. This was an important contribution, though his only contribution, to the decipherment of the dead language. <br />
<br />
Sir Thomas Herbert in 1634 England, after seeing many examples of Cuneiform, hypothesized, correctly, that it wasn't an alphabet, but a written system of words and symbols. He guessed this because it would be highly unlikely that there would be an alphabet of over 1000 letters (Cuneiform had about this many characters), because many examples are continuous without breaks as one would expect to separate words, and because some of the inscriptions were quite short.<br />
<br />
"Bishop Friedich Munter discovered that the words in the Persian inscriptions
were divided from one another by an oblique wedge and that the monuments
must belong to the age of Cyrus<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great"></a>
and his successors. One word, which occurs without any variation
towards the beginning of each inscription, he correctly inferred to
signify "king."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sayce_8-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform#cite_note-Sayce-8"></a></sup> By 1802 Georg Friedrich Grotefend had determined that two king's names mentioned were Darius<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia" title="Darius I of Persia"></a> and Xerxes<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia" title="Xerxes I of Persia"></a>
(but in their native Old Persian forms, which were unknown at the time
and therefore had to be conjectured), and had been able to assign
correct alphabetic values to the cuneiform characters which composed the
two names." (1)<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform#cite_note-10"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform#cite_note-10"></a><br />
<br />
"In 1836, the eminent French scholar <span style="color: black;">Eugène Burnouf</span> discovered that the first of the inscriptions published by Niebuhr contained a list of the provinces of the Persian Empire. With this clue in his hand, he identified and published an
alphabet of thirty letters, most of which he had correctly deciphered." (1)<br />
<br />
In 1835, Henry Rawlinson found the Rosetta Stone of Cuneiform. An inscription that had the same statement in Old Persian Cuneiform, Elamite and Babylonian. This inscription led to the complete decipherment of Cuneiform.<br />
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Figuring out how the language was spoken and with what accent was done through comparison of it to other related scripts and languages. Today there are several hundred scholars who are both fluent in writing and speaking Cuneiform.<br />
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The history of the decipherment of Cuneiform tells us something about how science works. People hypothesize about a problem they are faced with and then seek evidence that upholds or disproves it. To solve a difficult problem often requires contributions from many minds in many different fields. People have to collaborate, sharing their perspectives, insights, and using their creativity. In order to decipher the dead language people had to study many hundreds and thousands of examples of it to find patterns that might give context to otherwise incomprehensible symbols. The process of science can be frustrating because some problems are just too difficult for one person or one generation to figure out and sometimes the best that can be done is to make progress on understanding without ever coming to any absolute truth. Luckily in the case of Cuneiform, the researchers were dealing with a human language with many examples of the writing in existence thus giving many angles for discovering patterns and giving context to those patterns. Also, they were lucky in finding an inscription that contained two known languages as well as the Cuneiform. But despite, these breakthroughs, it still was a 2000 year process, since the extinction of the language to bring it back to life.<br />
<br />
What happens though when we deal with an even harder problem? Such as trying to figure out whether or not other animals use sophisticated language. In this case, there are no known examples besides human language, that we can use to help us decipher these languages, and we are stuck in an even harder spot because we don't even know if other animals are just making sounds or actually using a systematized language in the first place. But if we hypothesize that some animals indeed are using language, how can we go about finding evidence to support or disprove it? Just like in the case of deciphering Cuneiform we have to go back to looking for perspectives, insights, patterns and contexts that will help our understanding.<br />
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I found an interesting video of an American Robin singing that I'd like to use to guide us on our scientific inquiry. First of all just watch the video once or twice and think/question about what you think the bird is doing by singing and pay special attention to the way it sings. Write down your observations and thoughts.<br />
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Have a discussion with people about what they think the bird is doing by singing as well as what they notice about its vocalizations. Is it just talking to itself? Is it talking gibberish? Is it meaningful? Is it language? Is it just expressing itself through music? Is it just a vocal instinctual fixed-action-pattern? Did you notice how songs of a similar pattern are sung and then separated by a pause? Is each song sung the same? Does the number of chirps per song vary? Do the pitches of notes change from song to song. Etc.<br />
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Now, how can we go beyond just mere conjecture and find evidence about whether or not the bird is speaking a language? It might be best to begin by allowing everyone to come up with their own method of collecting evidence that the bird is or isn't speaking a language and then playing the video once or twice more. After showing the video again, let everyone share what they came up with and then let people collaborate, adapting their approaches or adopting someone else's, just as it happens in science. Then show the video again once or twice more and repeat the process a few times to see how far people get. Part of what should dawn on people is that 1) we all have unique perspectives and ways of applying our creativity to problems. This is good and other people's ideas should be embraced when they prove to be useful. 2) Real world scientific inquiries are often frustrating and difficult. This is why people have to learn to collaborate and adapt their approaches according to progress that others have made. It should be emphasized from the history of Cuneiform decipherment that many scientific problems take a long time to solve if they are solved and making progress on understanding, sometimes, is the most that can be hoped for, although this can still be very rewarding.<br />
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My approach for gaining insight into the bird's songs can be done as follows:<br />
1) Number 1 - 15 on a piece of paper (this is the number of discrete songs the bird sings in the video)<br />
2) Then listen to the video once or twice, having everyone take a tally of how many chirps occur in each song. The numbers will likely vary from person-to-person because the bird sings slurs that sound like two notes as well as notes with two quick beats compared to most other notes sung that have just one beat. <br />
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When I'm just tallying beats I get the following numbers:<br />
1) 8<br />
2) 9<br />
3) 5<br />
4) 2<br />
5) 11<br />
6) 5<br />
7) 8<br />
8) 5<br />
9) 8<br />
10) 6<br />
11) 6<br />
12) 7<br />
13) 12<br />
14) 6<br />
15) 6<br />
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Have people compare their results and then discuss if any patterns emerged and what might be done to improve their methods. Are there numbers that occur more frequently? Do combinations of numbers always show up together? Etc. What can this tell us about whether or not the bird is using language?<br />
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The next time that I listened to the video I used a tally for a regular note, a V for quick double notes, and a dot (I'm typing as an "o" here for convenience) for high pitch notes and got the following results. You could have people do the same. This is the process of refining our methods in science so that we obtain better data and observations. With better data and observations we can make better inferences and conclusions about what is going on.<br />
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1) IIIIIIIo<br />
2) IIIIoIIVI<br />
3) IIIIo<br />
4) II<br />
5) IIIVIIVIVII<br />
6) IIVIo<br />
7) IIIIIVI<br />
8) IIIII<br />
9) IIIIIIIo<br />
10) IIIIII<br />
11) IIIIII<br />
12) IIIIIo<br />
13) IIIIIIIIIIIo<br />
14) IIIIIII<br />
15) IIIIIV<br />
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Again, have people compare their results, discuss their interpretations of and observations about the results and then offer suggestions about how to improve their methods even further. It isn't a problem if they only have pencil and paper and no other instrumentation for it exemplifies the common dilemma in science where we often have questions and methods we want to try that go far beyond our current technological and technical capability. When we lack technology we have to apply our creativity to use what we have to get better results, when we lack technical ability we have to train ourselves and increase our knowledge or find and learn how to collaborate with the people who have the skills and knowledge in demand.<br />
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End by having people recommend what things could be done to get better results, what other experiments, knowledge and observations would be useful to shed further light on the issue of whether or not robins or any other species are using language besides humans.<br />
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This activity is meant to help people come to understand how science really works. It should make them appreciate that science can be very difficult, slow to progress and frustrating, but also that it can be very exciting and rewarding as well as a playground for the maximum application of creativity because many problems/phenomena have no known answer and many problems/phenomena haven't even been identified yet.<br />
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What I found interesting, just by tallying the chirps of the robin's song, is that meaningful patterns began to emerge. For instance, high notes tended to occur as the fifth and eighth note of the songs. The number of notes in the songs varied, but there was occasional repetition. This all highlights something that I've experienced when doing scientific research; oftentimes meaningful patterns emerge when we take the time to make careful observations and to think about what those observations might mean. <br />
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Discoveries are rewarding because they further shed light on the nature of existence and our context in the universe as humans. And what's more, one need not be a professor at an elitist university to make discoveries; anyone who is willing to apply their creativity can take part in the excitement of discovery and furthering the process of understanding our universe known as science. <br />
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-Seth Commichaux<br />
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Sources:<br />
1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform<br />
2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0omo_-InUuE<br />
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<br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-17600727548410636532015-01-05T16:19:00.002-07:002015-01-07T11:12:53.999-07:00Dogen and Me: Person, Perspective, Purpose and Place<i>Hello friends!</i><br />
<i>Seth has written another exciting blog that looks at poetry derived from Zen practice and its ability to help us connect to the world and each other. This is a great topic! Forging personal and deep connections to both the human and non-human world is a <u>very</u> big piece of the environmental education puzzle.</i><br />
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<i>We would love to hear from you on your own thoughts about how poetry and other forms of art cultivate a sense of place and connection! Please add your comments in the comment box.</i><br />
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<i>Enjoy!</i><br />
<i>USEE Staff</i><br />
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<br />
Lately I've been reading some of the poems and sayings of Dōgen.<br />
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He lived from 1200 to 1253 in the modern era. Thought to be born an illegitimate child of a noble family, he was given up to a Buddhist monastery (which acted like orphanages, back then, for unwanted children in many cases) after his mother died at 7 years old. He was influential in establishing the Soto school of Zen in Japan after studying it under master Rujing in China.<br />
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One thing I really like about Dōgen (as well as many other Zen poets) is that he practiced extracting symbolic profundity from any place and any moment by just being aware of what was outside and inside himself, thereby dissolving the boundary between self and world until there were no distinctions. Oftentimes, making connections between seemingly unconnected things leads to thought-provoking insights.<br />
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<u>CHING-CH'INGS RAINDROP SOUND</u></div>
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When my mind is free--</div>
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I listen to the rain</div>
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Dripping from the eaves,</div>
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And the drops become</div>
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One with me.</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), translated by Steven Heine</div>
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Trying to observe the world and his thoughts as with a mirror, Dōgen captured the world in the art of poetry. With just a few well-chosen words he expressed that the real world was mystical and mysterious because relationships could be found between all things, beings and times.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<u>IMPERMANENCE</u></div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
To what shall </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
I liken the world?</div>
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Moonlight, reflected</div>
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In dewdrops,</div>
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Shaken from a crane's bill.</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), translated by Steven Heine</div>
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Oftentimes, when I get bored with life it is because I have lost awareness of the things and beings around me and the relationships I share with them. I have lost sight of the mysticism and mystery of just existing. Dōgen and the Zen poets help my awareness extend beyond myself reawakening a sense of wonder that has a healing affect on my mind. I don't know how such simple observations/insights captured in such few words can have this effect.<br />
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<u>COMING OR GOING</u></div>
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</div>
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The migrating bird</div>
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leaves no trace behind</div>
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and needs no guide.</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), translated by Robert Bly</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="393" sb_id="ms__id2423" src="https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQSG-nNpDo0-hqjfyJvgIoD9A9hbPV-ki7DEXNypDP9LU9L6pQa" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="594" /></div>
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<u>ENLIGHTENMENT IS LIKE THE MOON</u></div>
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</div>
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Enlightenment is like the moon reflected on the water.</div>
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It does not get wet nor can its image be broken.</div>
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Although the moon's light is wide and great,</div>
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it is even reflected in a puddle an inch wide.</div>
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The whole moon and the entire sky</div>
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Are reflected in one dewdrop on the grass.</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="640" sb_id="ms__id46574" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcShEnXoi7UlBAo_GTgh82a24jriAO1pO7v-HA_PiBPQpKEWD3CI" style="margin-top: 21px;" width="429" /></div>
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Reawakened with a sense of place, I realize all of the amazing things in the environment around me.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
"When snow falls,</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
a heron</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
uses its whiteness</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
to disappear."</div>
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</div>
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--poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="224" sb_id="ms__id57103" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRNGeP-1uvGO2LR28X9y6zHFJSzqdrZogWe7ltgwNkt0LRvFIjDkA" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="400" /></div>
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"Do not ask where I am going,</div>
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For everywhere I step in this world,</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
I am home."</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator</div>
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Sometimes, we're so caught up in the reel of our own lives, we forget just how amazing, complex and vast the world and universe beyond really are and we forget just how many other beings on Earth and beyond are navigating their own lives in their own little bubbles. How often do we live right pass one another? Sometimes loneliness, fear, paranoia, hatred, and insecurity kill the realization of connectedness, interrelatedness and wonder; our perception shrinks to hardline dichotomies like self and other, good and evil, us and them. We only see strong distinctions everywhere, our judgments become severe, we become disinterested in learning about our differences (losing opportunities to build bridges, losing the insights that come with different perspectives), we cease to believe that everyone and everything has something to teach us, we forget that we too are not perfect and have blind spots.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<u>MOUNTAIN SECLUSION</u></div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
I won't even stop </div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
at the valley's brook</div>
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for fear that</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
my shadow</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
might flow into the world.</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator</div>
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<u>VIEWING PEACH BLOSSUMS AND REALIZING THE WAY</u></div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
In the spring wind</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
peach blossoms</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
begin to fall.</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
Doubt will not grow</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
branches and leaves.</div>
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</div>
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-poem by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator<br />
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<img class="irc_mut" height="393" sb_id="ms__id47642" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRy3hG9CTcMKkp35aG00h3bE90tnpo2KGNemCjFOLm0UX4eXDjDcg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="525" /></div>
</div>
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But if we can re-center ourselves and reconnect with the moment, place and beings that we are sharing existence with, perhaps the world will seem less threatening, the differences that divide seem less alien, and the potential to transform it all in a constructive way will be greater than when all seems divided, antagonistic and in disarray.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
"A fool sees himself and no other. A wise man sees others in himself and himself in others."</div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
-by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator</div>
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Life is opportunity, but many opportunities can only be realized by seeing the world as it is rather than as we wish it to be. Dōgen was just a human being, but his unique way of seeing and approaching the world was a great contribution to the collective perspective. His flavor of Zen tries to connect a person with the world as it is, believing that such a connection will lead to many insights and truths.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
"If you cannot find truth right where you are, where else do you expect to find it?"</div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
-by Dōgen (1200-1253), unknown translator</div>
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I do not know if Dōgen is right in any absolute sense, but knowledge does not necessarily need to settle any questions of universal significance in order to help us learn and grow. It is amazing enough that his art, after so many centuries, has helped me and others become more aware of the connection we have with the beings, things and time surrounding. <br />
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With this deeper awareness comes the realization that if all beings are interconnected then so are their destinies. Therefore a sense of responsibility grows that I work to better myself so that I can make my best contribution and that I help others maximize their potential so that they can make their greatest contribution, all working together towards a mutually better world.<br />
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Dōgen, seeking to discover a sense of place and connectedness through art led me to attempt the same. Here is my Zen poem. I encourage you to write yours.<br />
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<strong><u>HOW CLOSE?</u></strong></div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
When the cosmic wind loses its mind in a kaleidoscope tantrum</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
it blows a dust storm of time across the universe.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="393" sb_id="ms__id62897" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSjLszNXaTOlzNgVKlob6GAdlMwhFroPCvm2K-hWkjCRyC8Lv8H" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="625" /></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
The trees on the side of the ever rising Mountain of Life,</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
keep pulling themselves higher by the root.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="393" sb_id="ms__id22994" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQpAFBQAyWxney2bLLftt06PtkT1LqIx2wqSS51xUAT2-2jFcf3hg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="592" /></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
They hold fast to the underground network that sustains them.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="393" sb_id="ms__id83404" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTxyZi5RIKa43as5OjAhXxsU1naMwbX462RDQ1r83UaLT_VCocjzg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="524" /></div>
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Each one only perceives </div>
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their will against the world.....</div>
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<div class="irc_mutc" sb_id="ms__id36488">
<img class="irc_mut" height="340" sb_id="ms__id36490" 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" style="margin-top: 27px;" width="340" /></div>
<div class="irc_mutc" sb_id="ms__id36488">
</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
Their focus solely on the stars,</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
who seem reachable in moments of inspiration,<br />
<br />
<div class="irc_mutc" sb_id="ms__id41111">
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" 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but hopelessly far away</div>
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when in doubt........</div>
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How close must hardship bring us before we recognize that we are not alone?</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" height="393" sb_id="ms__id95924" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRVdf_maKHTrXmx1bG85IUvu1OgNDKAQx08ieVaYMInuTMx5G8zCQ" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="477" /></div>
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=Seth Commichaux<br />
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<br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-40547319210429954902014-12-15T11:05:00.000-07:002014-12-15T11:05:38.442-07:00The Search For Intelligent Life? Let's Think About This...Recently, I was watching a series of lectures about the search for life in the universe. It kept my attention while talking about the 800+ new-found solar systems around other stars beyond our own. It seems likely that solar systems are very common in the universe, thus the question arises does life exist in those systems or is our solar system unique?<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hv3MRpBYmsI/VHot_Q31JlI/AAAAAAAAAJs/a4irqo7WRFQ/s1600/a.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hv3MRpBYmsI/VHot_Q31JlI/AAAAAAAAAJs/a4irqo7WRFQ/s1600/a.jpg" height="196" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Actual photograph of planets around a star beyond our sun</td></tr>
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Where the series lost me was when the presenter got to the subject of searching for intelligent life in the universe. He made it seem as though us humans were the only intelligence on Earth and perhaps the only intelligence in the universe. Of course, we humans assume we are the most intelligent because we exercise a lot of power on Earth, but this isn't much different than the monarchy thinking they must be smarter than all the peasants because of the power they have over the peasants (it's funny because when I think of all of the great thinkers, artists and scientist over the ages, hardly one was a king or queen). Power doesn't necessarily equate with intelligence and there's a certain arrogance about humanity that has left a trail of disproven claims that should be remembered when ever we make great claims about our superiority. Claims such as the universe was specially created for humans, we must be at the center of the universe, must be the center of the solar system, humans must have the biggest genome with the most genes, we must have the biggest brains, the biggest brain to body ratio, the most neurons, the most brain folds, must be the only tool users, the only language users, the only species with culture, the only species that can learn, the only species that has a sense of self, the only species with emotions, the only rational/non-instinctual species, the only species with a soul. All of these claims have been disproven, but we still hang on to the idea that humans must be superior to all other living things in some way. And so we stare out into the universe looking for "intelligent" life as though, besides humans, the world was just plain full of dummies! I would contend that "intelligent" life is not as rare or elusive as we might think and our search for it in the universe need not lead us far.<br />
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What the search for "intelligent" life needs is a reformation over what "intelligent" means. Einstein might have been a brilliant physicist, but he wasn't a gifted farmer. And in order for there to be people who can spend their whole lives thinking about what happens to objects when they're travelling near the speed of light, there must be people who perfect agriculture to the point that they can grow enough produce for teachers to teach children math and science, professors to teach adults higher level math and science, researchers who do the experiments, mechanics and engineers who build the equipment to perform the experiments, and theorists to guide the direction of experimentation, etc., etc., etc. In other words, in order for scientists to perform at their most intelligent level, you need farmers to perform at their most intelligent level. By this configuration, Einstein's genius is worthless without there being genius farmers to support his thinking lifestyle. If Einstein had to grow his own food, it's unlikely he would've come up with Relativity. Thus, intelligence, too, is relative and multiple intelligences are necessary for everyone to maximize their potential.<br />
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Extrapolating this argument to the search for "intelligent" life besides humans, we must remember that most of the processes that make Earth a habitable place are not performed by humans. The production of oxygen for us to breathe, for one example, is done by plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic bacteria.</td></tr>
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If humans went extinct, those plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria would live on just fine without us, but if they went extinct we'd go extinct right alongside them. So what's necessary isn't for all organisms to aspire for human-like intelligence, but for each organism to become more intelligent in its own way. If the whole body was a brain it would die. The brain requires the work of the heart, lungs, immune system, digestive system, legs, arms, etc., etc., etc., in order to be specialized in receiving information, interpreting signals, and sending out commands. Thus, it isn't possible that the brain is the superior organ, for it is only as effective as the rest of the body.<br />
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Einstein's physics intelligence isn't superior to farmer's intelligence. Farmers would much more readily survive without physicists than physicists would survive without farmers. So what's really necessary is for all members of society to become more intelligent in their own way and better at what they do, so less people are forced to labor where they have the least to offer. Is the world better when everyone is forced to be a subsistence farmer or is it better when farm intelligence makes it possible for only a few to farm, and the rest are freed up to pursue other work? Societies are not built with the intelligence of one occupation or one individual, but the collective interrelating of many kinds of intelligence.<br />
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In terms of the environment, humans can only be as effective as the rest of the beings on Earth make the environment conducive for what humans do. If bees, other insects, bats, and birds, ceased to pollinate our crops and we had to pollinate every flower ourselves to eat.....we'd starve. If earthworms, fungi and other decomposers weren't constantly at work breaking down corpses and carcasses, the world would become a heap of bodies with no soil for plants to grow in and no free nutrients for bacteria to reintroduce in usable forms into the biosphere.<br />
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So rather than considering ourselves superior to the world, using it like a stepping stone to some fairy tale encounter with extraterrestrial "intelligent" life, condescendingly looking for "intelligent" life at great distances while ignoring all the intelligent life that surrounds us on Earth, maybe we had better realize that if humanity is to survive, it will require the collective intelligence of all beings working towards a sustainable planet. Maybe humanity is the frontal cortex of the world, but without a smart and effective rest of the body, the whole person dies.<br />
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Maybe we should be grateful that there are bacteria who are intelligent in a bacteria-kind-of-way, and plants who are intelligent with a plant-specific-intelligence, etc., because it is a diverse, collective intelligence that makes Earth a habitable planet. Humans by themselves, would be like a brain in a jar. It takes a body, with trillions of cells who know what they need to do, and trillions of cells who perform all of the essential functions of the body, in order for the brain to maximize its potential in the form of a person who works on and wonders at the world.<br />
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Similarly, and perhaps more importantly, it takes many species, great and small, all with their own roles, and all of them striving to fulfill those roles in order for the world to be the place of learning and living that it is. So perhaps rather than searching for "intelligent" life elsewhere, maybe we should work on recognizing and respecting the diverse kinds of intelligence that already surround us everywhere on this spaceship planet spinning through the cosmos.<br />
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-Seth CommichauxAnonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-66076669651382230292014-11-19T10:36:00.000-07:002014-11-19T10:36:11.635-07:00Part I: The Evolution of Public Education in the United StatesHello USEE blog readers! We hope you enjoy this new blog from our dedicated volunteer writer, Seth Commichaux. In this post, Seth explores the origins of public education in our country. Though this is not a direct discussion on environmental education, we find this relevant to the larger discussion of education!<br />
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The founding fathers of the United States might have been progressives and intellectuals for their time, but the average American at the birth of the new nation was illiterate and few foresaw the importance and value educating the masses would come to have in the coming centuries. As a result, education (much less a free and publicly paid for education) was never listed as a fundamental right in the constitution of the United States and as such a battle has been waged ever since over who should be educated, what should be allowed to be taught and who should be able to teach that information. <br />
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Pre-Revolution the average person in the United States would never receive an education. Save for living in a few progressive and large cities who mandated free education for white boys, the only real chance they had at getting a good education was by being born to wealthy and powerful parents. Elites, realizing the power over people and access to the world (and thus to greater opportunity) that came with being able to read and write, readily had private schools with good teachers built in their towns for their children to go to or hired qualified tutors to teach their children at home, but for the average person in the United States a life of farming, manual labor or domestic labor was their only future. In other words, realizing that knowledge was power, education was reserved by the elites for elites to preserve the status quo. <br />
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But after the Revolutionary War, politicians began to see the necessity for building a unified culture, with national ideals, and an American story that would make the separation from Old Europe complete. School was seen as a forum for making patriots and a new culture. Thomas Jefferson, perhaps motivated by more of a social conscience, felt that the United States needed to lead a crusade against ignorance to fulfill its promise of freedom through democracy. He said, "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, it expects what never was and never will be........The future of a democracy depends on the education of its people." He felt that genius was not just a product of aristocracy and that a democracy's survival hinged upon an educated public who were free to make informed decisions on their own. It was his belief that each American had a stake in the course of a democracy and thus each citizen should be willing to invest in the education of all of its citizens (save women and minorities, of course). Shedding light on the nature of the times, Thomas Jefferson thrice introduced a bill that would guarantee<strong> just 3 years of free, public education</strong> and thrice it was voted down, many claiming it was too much of a tax burden. An insightful critic noted something nearly as true then as it is today, "People have more feeling for canals and roads than for education."<br />
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It would take over a hundred years before Thomas Jefferson would get his way, but in the meantime the seeds of public education were planted in the United States and it has been evolving ever since. <br />
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Early public schools were more like local army barracks for small people rather than places of personal development and centers of knowledge for the young and growing. Often it was nothing more than a small wood building with a dirt floor where kids aged 5-15 were brow-beaten by a single teacher into memorizing passages from the bible. In the early 1800s, teachers were most often men and discipline, morality and hygiene were bigger topics of study than were math, science and literature. It wasn't unusual for teachers to have as little as a 5th grade education themselves. But, beginnings are beginnings. At least when you start you create a baseline from which you can learn and progress. And public education has seen a lot of progress since its birth. <br />
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Slowly, but surely states began to better fund and create the infrastructure for public education and more children started to go to school. In the 1840s after a series of debates in New York City over whether religious schools should be funded with public money, public education began to take a more secular path as it was realized that there wasn't enough money to go around to fund every single religion's separate school and agenda, nor was it democratic to fund institutions with public money that professed ideologies that not all taxpayers adhered to. In addition, strong arguments resonated about the divisiveness of religion in the public sphere due to the vitriolic conflicts between Catholics, Protestants, Jews and other religious groups who felt their children shouldn't have to endure the evils of a secular education. Harriet Beecher Stowe, on the side of secularists, made the case for a more secular morality, saying, "The heart needs something to rest upon. And if it is not God, it will be the world." <br />
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Around the same time, strong voices like that of Horace Mann began arguing that education was the means by which a fairer society with a leveler playing field could be created. Education, especially a free, public education was the key to freedom, excellence, social mobility and a guard against the rise of elitism, nobility, and the bourgeoisie. He also felt that public schools should be the place that civic virtue was taught and a sense of civic duty instilled as well as a place where people could build character if their family upbringing was lacking in such training. Travelling to every school in the state of Massachusetts while secretary on the first ever created school board of education, he saw the great discrepancies in funds, number of teachers to students as well as level of experience and expertise, school supplies, etc. As a result of seeing such great discrepancies in the administration of public education he called for there to be a common curriculum to better ensure that everyone was receiving a quality education. He also called for teaching as an occupation to professionalize by requiring teachers to receive more rigorous training. In addition, he fought for there to be a wider curriculum, better teacher pay to attract individuals of higher quality, and for better social conditions for he believed that poverty and prejudice prevented public education from being as effective as it could be.<br />
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With the coming and going of the Civil War, education became a symbol of freedom especially because denying people the right to an education was a key element in maintaining their bondage. Important figures like Frederick Douglass articulated that it was knowledge that brought the realization of the absolute immorality of slavery upon them. It was an education that made them aware of the in-humaneness and manipulations of others and gave them the courage to fight injustice. Frederick Douglass, a man who ran to freedom pre-Civil War said, "Knowledge makes a man unfit to be a slave.......once you learn to read you shall forever be free." In his autobiography he talked about the time he finally realized that education was the key to empowerment and freedom. Ironically, it was the man who was exploiting him who revealed the power of ignorance in controlling people, "<em>Learning would spoil the best [expletive] in the world. Now," said he, "if you teach that [expletive] (speaking of myself) how to read, there would be no keeping him. It would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and of no value to his master. As to himself, it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him discontented and unhappy." These words sank deep into my heart, stirred up sentiments within that lay slumbering, and called into existence an entirely new train of thought. It was a new and special revelation, explaining dark and mysterious things, with which my youthful understanding had struggled, but struggled in vain. I now understood what had been to me a most perplexing difficulty--to wit, the white man's power to enslave the black man. (6.3)</em><br />
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With some progress made, post-Civil War,for some minority groups in America, yet another oppressed class began to find its voice......women. Catharine Beecher and many other women and supporters of women's rights began to take on the prejudiced views that held that women were intellectually inferior to men and incapable of being employed in any serious occupation because of their fragile, emotional natures. Beecher went to school, but was mostly taught domestic arts and manners rather than any intellectual subjects. Undeterred she taught herself math, latin and philosophy and became determined for life that women should receive a more intellectually rigorous education. Catharine Beecher paved the way, against great opposition, for women to gain access to an occupation traditionally held by men, teaching. Arguing that men were too harsh and prone to corporal punishment to be effective communicators of information, and that because women were mothers they were the most qualified to be the nurturers and teachers of the next generation. Her efforts to raise awareness for the need for educators in the frontiers, and that women could best fill those positions, led to the archetypal woman teacher arriving in some small western town to exorcise it of ignorance. This allowed many women to escape the trap of unwanted marriages and to attain some level of autonomy and respect within their communities as single women or working women. Additionally, the women's rights movement of the late 1800s also advocated for and won many more public dollars for the education of girls and women in public schools<br />
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In 1870, the USA had 7.6 million students enrolled in public schools and taxpayers spent $63 million a year on them. In 1890, there were 12.7 million enrolled with a public expenditure of $141 million. At this point America had more children in school and spent more money on education than any other country in the world (probably contributed to the rise of America's power, don't ya think?).<br />
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With the constant evolution of public education to incorporate disenfranchised groups and the greater belief in the mass's ability to be educated, the theory of public education also evolved a more powerful rationale. Alfred Adler argued that public schools should help people overcome their backgrounds and equalize access to opportunity. One's family, culture, sex, appearance, socioeconomic status, etc. should not be the pre-determinants of one's future. Public education became a symbol for creating a utopian meritocracy where one's destiny was not determined by their past, but by their efforts. It was argued that taxpayers should not just take an interest in the welfare and future of their own children, but in the welfare and future of all of society's children.<br />
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By 1900, about 50% of children aged 5-18 were in public schools and they received an average of 5 years of schooling. It was around this time that Thomas Jefferson's wish was finally granted and compulsory, publicly-funded, primary school became law in the United States. It coincided with the Progressive Era when sentiment was running high to abolish many forms of child labor. In many ways, compulsory education replaced child labor. John Dewey advocated around this time for a more child-centered education, believing that every child had talents that could make a meaningful contribution to society. He was also a big believer in the capacity of science to enlighten and experimentally-based education to help people be more reality-based in their world outlook and approach to problems. On education he remarked, ""education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction". Dewey strongly felt that education should be interactive....not passive. And that public schools should be centers for raising social awareness and letting people experiment with movements.<br />
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Because the late 1800s and early 1900s were a time of great industrial development in the United States and also a time that saw great unrest and protest amongst exploited laborers, it was also a time during which there was the definite influence of the worker's movement in the curriculum. It was thought that public education should make scholars out of workers and workers out of scholars. It also became more common for public schools to focus more on training people to get a job rather than on educating them to more intellectual pursuits. This correlated with the introduction en masse of intelligence tests that were often misused as ways to fast track people to their "career." If your IQ was low, you were on the fast track to becoming a tradesman. If your IQ was high, you were on your way to becoming an engineer. This IQ railroading introduced an intellectual caste system where people of "high intelligence" deserved the best pay and to become doctors and lawyers, whereas those of "low intelligence" deserved low pay and to work in the more dangerous arenas of unskilled or skilled manual labor. Such simplistic diagnostics that determined the fate of individuals so early on didn't seem to trouble enough people for attitudes to change about the legitimacy of such test results for decades to come. And there was a definite undertone of racism about the results which tended to fast track many minorities to low pay, manual labor jobs, not because of lower intelligence, but because of language and cultural barriers as well having to start from a position of disadvantage in American society because of prejudice, socioeconomics and a general lack of opportunity, exposure and support. It was around this time that progressive educators began to realize that factors such as low self-esteem due to the effects of social stereotypes and prejudices as well as coming from the stressful background of poverty and disempowerment could result in lower performance without necessarily having any bearing on the true intelligence of the individual.<br />
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In 1900, only 6% of people had a high school diploma. In 1940, about 40% did. In 1950, only 28% of people with disabilities were enrolled in school. The slow evolution of public education continued. It got a boost in terms of support and funding with the start of the Cold War and the Eisenhower administration's National Defense Education Act which prioritized the need for a well educated public as essential for National Defense. But it was really the Civil Rights Movement that saw the next dramatic shift in the aims and philosophy of public education. For too long, in a country that espoused freedom and equal opportunity as it ideals, there were great inequities in access to education and opportunity and thus freedom and quality of life enjoyed. Public education was segregated, not equitably administered and was not the equalizing factor that it had set out to be. The poor, the disabled, the disenfranchised, minorities and women were still waiting and fighting for their chance to fulfill their potential. <br />
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The Civil Rights Movement was a stride forward for all people in terms of quality of life, equality of treatment and access to opportunity as well as public education. The Civil Rights Movement also changed the curriculum towards a more socially aware and culturally diverse one where people of all kinds, shapes and colors were recognized for their contributions and achievements. In 1950, only 13.7% of African Americans received high school diplomas. By 1980, about 51.4% did. In 1950, only 0.0095% of medical and law degrees were awarded to women. By 1980, 30% were. In 1950, the average adult in the USA had 9 years of education (8th grade). By 1980, it was 12.5 years, almost all school-aged children were enrolled and there was an 80% high school graduation rate.<br />
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The Civil Rights Movement was the culmination of a 100 years of struggle for rights since the Civil War and one of its major achievements was the passing of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act which was the strongest and most sweeping legislation yet passed to promote taxpayer funded education for everyone. It was a statement that all people in a society have a stake in the future of everyone's children because the it a well-educated public that promotes a just and fair democracy that ends up improving everyone's quality of life. The bill established the federal government's role in funding primary and secondary education for everyone, especially the disadvantaged. It aimed to shorten achievement gaps by providing fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education. It provided funding for the disabled, minorities and the poor. It provided funding for bilingual education programs which helped children who didn't speak English as their first language not get railroaded to manual labor jobs against their will. Too often these children were considered non-intelligent and unfit for any occupation but low-wage, unskilled labor, when the real issue was the cultural and language gap......not a lack of intelligence. Acknowledging that student achievement decreases as school poverty increases and that poverty in general leads to lower student achievement, the bill sought, through taxpayer funding, to overcome these disadvantages by allocating more funds and materials to fulfill the American promise of equal access to opportunity.<br />
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Starting with the 1980s there was a move away from public education towards homeschooling, charter schools and private schools. The people of the world were becoming connected, motivations were becoming more business-driven/profit-driven; education began to see more pressure from the bottom line; concerns moved toward the economy and away from social progress; competition became an ideal and the marketplace was crowned king. Due to the perceived, overriding importance of economics, the Ronald Reagan administration began to emphasize the importance of standardized testing for measuring the quality of education going on at public schools nationwide. Such grading of public school performance by standardized testing, resulted in the federal government being able to withhold funds if there wasn't improvement. Of course, this gave a mixed results as schools began teaching students "to the test" so as to avoid financial hardship. This logic was counter to that as found in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act because it sought to punish failing schools with more austerity rather than to provide more funding so that struggling schools could invest in better material and teachers. Financial punishment for not performing has led to less funds, the lay off of teachers and the reduced capacity to invest in materials for many schools who would benefit from such investments. There was also the rise of the school voucher system which supported "choice" in the education market with more private schools, charter schools and homeschooling. <br />
In 2002, the number of students in public schools was at 47.8 million, but the percent of children enrolled in public schools had fallen to ~90%. Today there are about <strong>98,817 public schools, 6,187 charter schools, 7,110 catholic schools</strong> and <strong>33,366 private schools </strong>in the United States. There are about <strong>3.3 million full-time, public school, primary and secondary level teachers, 72,000 charter school teachers </strong>and about <strong>0.4 million, full-time, private school, primary and secondary level teachers. </strong>There are about <strong>54,876,000 students enrolled in K-12. </strong> <strong>49,484,181 attend public schools; 1,941,831 attend charter schools; 1,508,000 are home schooled; 2,031,455 attend catholic schools; and 5,488,000 attend private schools.</strong> The <strong>total funding of public education costs about $597,485,869,000</strong> with the following breakdown.<br />
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<li><strong>Federal: $75.99 billion (12.7% of total)</strong></li>
<li><strong>State: $259.8 billion (43.5% of total)</strong></li>
<li><strong>Local: $261.7 billion (43.8% of total)</strong></li>
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I hope to have shown that the public education system has greatly progressed since the illiterate pre-Revolution America. It has not always been a perfect nor ideal evolution, but to lose faith in public education is to desecrate the enormous strides that have been made and dishonors the enormous efforts, in the face of stiff opposition, many educators have made so that <strong><u>ALL</u></strong> Americans could be better educated and thus freer, more empowered, and standing on nearer-to-equal ground to access opportunity. The question now is where we will take this great project of public education in the future.<br />
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Soon, I hope to write another installment of this blog, talking about more modern issues and debates surrounding public education using the historical backdrop I've outlined here. <br />
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-Seth Commichaux<br />
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Sources Cited:<br />
<a href="https://www.edreform.com/2012/04/k-12-facts/">https://www.edreform.com/2012/04/k-12-facts/</a><br />
<a href="http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=84">http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=84</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann</a><br />
<a href="http://www.shmoop.com/life-of-frederick-douglass/education-quotes-2.html">http://www.shmoop.com/life-of-frederick-douglass/education-quotes-2.html</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharine_Beecher">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharine_Beecher</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act</a><br />
School: The Story of American Public Education. Film Series. Films for the Humanities. Sarah Mondale and Sarah Patton.<br />
The Teacher Wars: A History of America's Most Embattled Profession. Dana Goldstein. 2014.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-70648961902687089592014-10-13T14:15:00.000-06:002014-11-05T08:30:46.199-07:00How birds find their way: a blog about migration and navigation<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://njscuba.net/zzz_biology/geese_migrate.jpg" height="335" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 39px;" width="500" /></div>
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It's amazing how many different kinds of beings there are on Earth, each with it's own life and concerns, each with some sense of what they are and where they need to be. This time of year when I see birds, of many different kinds, heading off for their wintering grounds either individually or in formations I often wonder where they go; and even more I wonder how they know where to go and when to go. How did migratory paths evolve in the first place? Has it been a gradual process? And why did some birds evolve to migrate whereas others stick around? During the winter I sometimes see very small birds I think would die of exposure to the cold, but who stick around in the snow and survive nonetheless. <br />
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<img src="http://cdnpix.com/show/imgs/e3a0fee680fb3b1e7df9efd50cfaad17.jpg" height="300" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 56px;" width="400" /> </div>
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Migratory birds aren't just running away from the cold and snow, though it might be part of the reason (during winter, resources tend to be more scarce...spring and summer
bring a certain abundance that sustains far more lives), as many migratory birds leave during good weather and oftentimes pass through
very nice places with great weather on their way to some far-off, unseen destination. <br />
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Year-after-year many species of bird fly between their breeding grounds and wintering grounds along the same sky-ways their ancestors took. Some of the individuals, or even all of them, may never have migrated before and yet they will still find their way. Extraordinary examples of migrations (and way-finding) are the Bar-Tailed Godwit who flies 8 days non-stop on a 7,000 mile journey from New Zealand to Alaska.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://alaska.usgs.gov/science/biology/avian_influenza/species/images/BARG_RGill.jpg" height="308" id="irc_mi" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 52px;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bar-Tailed Godwit in Alaska</td></tr>
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Another extreme example is the Arctic Tern who flies all the way from the Arctic to the Antarctic and then from the Antarctic to the Arctic every year. Several arctic terns tagged with GPS trackers have been recorded to fly nearly 60,000 miles on their convoluted migrations every year! How do they find their way?<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://images.gizmag.com/hero/arctic-terns-10.jpg" height="297" id="irc_mi" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 58px;" width="530" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">GPS track of Arctic Terns making journey to and fro the Antarctic and Arctic.</td></tr>
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As you can see from the picture above, the Arctic Terns don't all take the same route nor do they make a bee line to their destination nor do they take the same paths going North-to-South as they do from South-to-North. In fact, it is well recorded that there can be great differences in migratory routes between species, between populations of the same species and even between individuals of the same species. Just as in humans, some birds seem to be anal about leaving for migration at an exact time and take the exact same route every year, both coming and going; they rest and refuel at the same stopovers and use the same breeding and wintering grounds. All the while other individual birds have a freer sense of timing and place, leaving when it suits their fancy and taking whatever route appeals to them. There is a genetic component to migrations as is observed for many birds who are natural migrators, but who are kept in cages; they will often
beat themselves against the bars or seem agitated for weeks when they
otherwise would've been migrating. Also, their bodies seem to seasonally transition to a state ready for intense physical exertion. But as is becoming apparent, genetics isn't all for there is also a great deal of individual choice and variation. There probably is an instinctual framework shaped by evolution, a heritable memory of their ancestor's interactions with the environment, that guides them along, but to what degree? It can't be too automatic for the environment is dynamic. From year-to-year conditions along the migratory route might be vastly different; there might be storms, strong winds or unseasonably warm or cool weather; fire might've ravaged a normal stopover and a new one needs to be found to refuel and rest; human activity might make a certain route impossible to travel; drought might've dried up a lake or river that was needed for food along the way; new forage patches or waters might be found; predators might be encountered; winter might come early and an early migration might have to occur; the weather at stopovers might be favorable or unfavorable leading to longer stays or hastier departures; etc., etc., etc. Additionally, from year-to-year an individual might not feel as healthy or might have some other kind of personal problem that affects how they migrate. The mystery of bird migrations and navigation got me intrigued about how birds find their way when they're traveling far-and-wide. Particularly insightful to the elucidation of how birds find their way have been experiments with homing pigeons. In these experiments pigeons are kept in a 'black box' and transported to a never-seen, unknown-to-them location, tens, hundreds or even thousands of miles away from their home and then released. Inexplicably, the pigeons, without knowing where they are at their release location nor how they got there, more-often-than-not, find their way back home!<br />
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<img src="http://www.asdlabs.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/asdlabs-pigeon-flying.jpg" height="255" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 79px;" width="420" /></div>
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If I was free to go where I wanted, I'd use a map or ask for directions or just follow the signs on the highways and byways. If I had to get to Africa from Utah, but without maps, signs or asking for directions I don't know how I would do it. Perhaps I would use the knowledge I had of the stars on the sun to set a course East and as I ran into different cultures, kinds of people and languages I might roughly know where I was and where I was going, but this is relying on my previous knowledge to find my way. The intriguing thing with some bird migrations is that some individuals might never have made the migration before and might have no knowledge of what the larger world is like to use as reference for orientation.<br />
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But despite all obstacles, most migratory birds find their way. So how do they do it? From doing a little digging into the scientific literature I distilled out a few tools and methods the birds are using on their epic journeys to find their way. Many interesting experiments had to be done to discover these.<br />
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The main known tools and methods by which birds find their way and the ranges over which they're probably most useful, in no particular order of importance:<br />
-Sight (short-to-long range)<br />
-Smell (short-to-medium range)<br />
-Experience/Memory (short-to-long range)<br />
-Magnetic Fields (long range)<br />
-Astronomy (long range)<br />
-Genetics (?)<br />
-Culture, Teaching and Learning (short-to-long range)<br />
-Skylight polarization (long range)<br />
-Internal Map and Compass (short-to-long range)<br />
-Landscape/Atmospheric Patterns and Trends (short-to-long range)<br />
-Circadian Rhythm/Internal Clock (?)<br />
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Visual way-finding seems straightforward enough, recognize a site and fly to it, but there are many levels of complexity therein we shouldn't overlook. When birds see their destination they can go to it, but depending on how it is approached it might take a minute for them to orient. Ever been driving in a place you normally know, but because you drove into it from a different angle you didn't even recognize where you were?<br />
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Seeing your destination seems a sure method of finding your way, but most migratory destinations are out of sight. Over long flights birds use their vision to follow landmarks like mountain ranges and shorelines to navigate.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://www.flyways.us/sites/default/files/images/flyway-map-bio.gif" height="400" id="irc_mi" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 6px;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Major migratory flyways over North America. Notice the use of landmarks like the East and West coasts, the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.</td></tr>
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Birds also use their vision to watch the stars and sun. In wind tunnels with overhead displays of stars or sun, migratory birds in the season for migration change the orientation of their flight based upon the orientation of the stars and sun. Homing pigeons that are kept under artificial conditions where a light mimicking the sun is manipulated to be out of sync with the real sun's position and then who are released tend to home at a particular angle of orientation off of the real direction of home that correlates with the artificial sun's position. For instance, under artificial conditions the birds might be conditioned to believe that it is 3 pm based upon the artificial sun's position and then released to home in the real world where it is actually 10 am. The birds will treat the 10 am sun as if it was at the 3 pm position and orient themselves accordingly, thus homing at a predictable angle off from the true direction to home. Another proof that birds use the sun came from an experiment with homing pigeons who had their circadian rhythms offset by artificial day/night cycles. Released far from home in any direction they deviate at departure by an angle roughly corresponding to the angle between the observed sun azimuth and that expected according to their shifted timescale. This all indicates that birds are constantly watching and keeping track of the location of the celestial bodies in order to navigate. <br />
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Other things some birds are known to visually navigate by are patterns of wave direction and snow drift direction which is related to prevailing winds.<br />
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But how do birds navigate when there are no real landmarks to visually track, such as far from shore over a calm ocean? or what about when the days and nights are cloudy and the sun and stars can't be seen? When pigeons wearing frosted contact lenses, so that they can't see with any clarity, are released far from their roosts they still return within about .25 - 1.5 miles of their home, but can't get any closer, presumably because they can't see it. This means that birds can navigate without actually seeing where they are going. One tool the birds are believed to be using to accomplish this feat is olfaction, or the sense of smell.<br />
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A strange fact that supports olfaction as a tool for navigation in birds comes from several experiments and observations. Homing pigeons can be born in captivity and never allowed to fly around their roost to get a sense of the area and yet when taken tens or hundreds of miles and released from a foreign location still find their way back home. However, if the pigeons are not exposed to the open air while in their roost, they will lose their way. Furthermore, if they are in a controlled environment where the air stream is manipulated so that they aren't exposed to natural winds, they will also not be able to home. What's so special about open air and the wind? The wind carries information. If we had a better sense of smell we'd realize that a wind blowing from the North smells different than a wind blowing from the West. The only experience I can think of for around here is that when the wind blows from the North, we can smell the Great Salt Lake in Utah County. Each place has its own scent signature and surprisingly most birds have an incredibly sensitive sense of smell that seemingly can distinguish between the smells of different places for hundreds of miles around. When pigeons are in their home roost they take note of the different odors that accompany winds from different directions, forming an olfactory map of their local area. When they are taken to a location unknown to them, they seem to be able to recognize the scent of the place and to know what direction it was relative to their roost and they can home accordingly. This method works for nearly a thousand mile radius as this is the maximum limit homing pigeons have been able to find home. Thus, if we had better noses we might see a landscape of odors as clearly as we see the landscape with our eyes.<br />
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A cruel experiment that also supports that pigeons, starlings and other birds are using their sense of smell to home has to do with cutting the olfactory nerve so that their brains no longer receive information from their noses. Without the ability to smell, birds have an extremely difficult time of homing from any distance greater than that from which they can see their home. Other, less cruel experiments that involve anesthetizing the noses of birds provided similar results. The question remains about exactly which aromatic compounds the birds are using to home. Some seabirds have been known to use the smell of dead fish in dense fog at night to find fishing boats over 50 miles away. Whatever molecules bird use to navigate what is clear is that experience still plays a role because some pigeons who are experienced at homing and who have no sense of smell can still find their way back home from distances greater than within-sight. What's more, the sense of smell for practical purposes is mostly limited to a range of about 200-300 miles (which would be like living in SLC your whole life, getting dropped off in St. George and sniffing your way back to SLC!). For longer ranges other senses seem to be needed for birds to navigate.<br />
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Such a candidate seems to be found in the magnetic sense. As far as is known, humans have no way of detecting the Earth's magnetic field with their bodies, but birds can. In many bird beaks are cells with deposits of magnetite, a mineral sensitive to the Earth's magnetic poles, used in compasses, that can detect magnetic north and south.<br />
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The magnetic field of Earth is created by convection currents in the core where there is an abundance of heavy metals such as iron. The magnetic field of Earth isn't static, it changes quite rapidly over the long-term and short term, but it seems to be a reliable enough source of information that birds and another animals have evolved to be able to detect it in order to orient themselves. Experiments such as attaching magnets to the heads of honeybees and sea turtles have found that interfering with an organism's ability to detect the Earth's magnetic field, if they can detect it, can cause them to become disoriented. Experiments with birds have shown similar results. In one such experiment, birds were conditioned in an artificial environment where there was a very strong magnetic field that was oriented differently than the Earth's magnetic field. When released to home, the birds headed off in a direction offset by the angle from truth North that they had been conditioned to in their artificially created magnetic field. Also, homing pigeon's have a harder time homing during events that affect the Earth's magnetic field such as solar flares and solar winds. What's even stranger are experiences where the eyes of birds were covered to see if it affected their sense of Earth's magnetic field. Oddly enough, it did have an affect. With their right eye covered birds can no longer detect the magnetic field, but with their right eye open and their left eye closed they can sense the magnetic field again and what's more when the birds have their left eye closed and their right eye has a frosted contact lens over it they can't sense the magnetic field either. This implies that it isn't light, but the clarity with which that they can see that helps birds detect the magnetic field of Earth. Therefore, there might be something about the horizon which betrays the magnetic field. No one yet knows. These examples provides evidence that birds along with their many other senses and strategies are using the Earth's magnetic field to navigate too. <br />
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Besides sight, smell, astronomy, magnetic fields, and
landscape/wavescape patterns birds probably use their experience and
memory, skylight polarization, culture, teaching, learning, an internal
map and compass, perhaps their genetics, time and some other as of yet
unknown tools and methods to navigate on their migrations and daily
trips.<br />
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Do birds ask for directions as they travel along? It might seem unlikely, but so did the idea that birds have culture until it was proven that songbirds of the same species have different dialects of song in different areas much like people in the USA might speak with a twang down South or with more slang in the Bronx. It is also known that many species of birds teach their generations their flight routes, but other species seem to have no such passage of information between generations. How do these birds find their way? Can birds tell each other about their travel experiences? Can they communicate across species about what birds, other beings and places are like in other parts of the world? It is known that a crow that has a run in with a bad-tempered human can communicate to other crows for tens of miles around about this trouble person and the crows will respond by cawing angrily at the human where ever they go. It is a mystery how crows can tell each other about the appearance of a human without actually having to see them and how they can recognize them, but somehow they can. Perhaps they have a different kind of expression than language that they can convey information through. We shouldn't be surprised considering that birds have a magnetic sense and an incredible sense of smell that humans can't even fathom. Additionally, many birds can see into the ultraviolet spectrum of light. Something else I like to consider is the circadian rhythms. Is time a compass? Can time be used to navigate through space? Do birds keep track of how long they've been flying in order to give them an idea of how far they've flown? <br />
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It is truly remarkable that these feathered descendents of the dinosaurs find their way all over this Earth on some of the most epic journeys life is known to undertake. Somehow, between their cells and molecules that make a whole organism there is a mechanism by which some, like the Arctic Tern, can literally find their way anywhere on Earth.<br />
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<img src="http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/procellariiformes/diomedeides/albatros-hurleur/albatros-hurleur-pi4.jpg" height="333" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 40px;" width="500" /> </div>
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It seems likely to me that migratory birds use all of their senses to find their way and that there are probably senses and tools better for different ranges. For instance, the magnetic sense is probably most useful for long range navigation while smell is best suited for medium ranges and sight probably most effective at short range navigation and orientation. <br />
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What role does genetics play in bird migration and orientation? Is there an internal map of the world contained within their genomes somehow? Are there other means by which birds obtain information in order to find their way in this world? Probably and they probably have to use every means possible in coordination with thought, memory and comparisons with previous experiences to orient. I say that there must be quite a bit of complex thought going on in their bird brains or wherever thought goes on because having tools says nothing about how you use them. Just because you have a saw, hammer, wood and nails doesn't mean the house is going to build itself i.e. just because birds have so many senses and methods for finding their way doesn't mean they will find their way. Birds do get lost and can't find their way back home, thus it seems that having tools and instincts still isn't enough to survive; instinct and tools still require conscious modification in order to serve a purpose and to be effective. So when you see the birds taking flight on their migrations take a moment to remember just how amazing those birds are and what they are doing really is.<br />
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-Seth Commichaux<br />
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Sources:<br />
1) Michael Walker, Todd Dennis, Joseph Kirschvink, 2002. The magnetic sense and its use in long-distance navigation by animals. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, vol. 12, pg 735-744.<br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span class="TextRun SCX58831268" style="line-height: 19px;"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;">2) Maria Dias, Jose </span><span class="SpellingError SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;">Granadeiro</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;">, Paulo </span><span class="SpellingError SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;">Catry</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;">,
2013. Individual variability in the migratory path and stopovers of a
long-distance pelagic migrant. Animal Behavior, vol. 86, </span><span class="SpellingError SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;">pg</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCX58831268" style="background-color: inherit;"> 359-364</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 19px;">3) Bird Sense: What It's Like To Be A Bird. Tim Birkhead. 2013.</span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 19px;">4) Hans Wallraff, 2003. Avian olfactory navigation: its empirical foundation and conceptual state. Animal Behavior, vol. 67, pg 189-204. </span><span style="color: windowtext; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span class="EOP SCX58831268" style="line-height: 19px;"> </span></span></span></div>
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Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-83392883965966495992014-08-29T13:01:00.000-06:002014-08-29T13:01:48.114-06:00Animal Madness, The Hierarchy of Needs and The Economics of Well-BeingI got done reading a book called<span style="font-size: small;"><span class="a-size-large" id="productTitle">, <u>Animal Madness: How Anxious Dogs, Compulsive Parrots, and Elephants in Recovery Help Us Understand Ourselves</u></span> </span>by Laurel Braitman (highly recommend). In it, she explores how and why animals lose their minds and if there are any connections that can be drawn with human mental illness that might help us to understand and cope with our ailments. Many aspects of animal mental illness are considered in the book like anxiety and depression, trauma and suicide, rage and revenge, inconsolable grief and phobias amongst many others. Aside from more organic diseases that can be attributed to the breakdown of physiological or genetic processes, I distilled an important contributor to mental disorders in animals: stress induced by the deprivation of needs. <br />
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From a dog named Oliver, with severe separation anxiety, who would lick all the fur off his paws and ransack the apartment when ever the humans would leave, to elephants who would go on murderous rampages when beaten to their breaking point. From gorillas that died of depression from being isolated, to racehorses that can't calm down without goat companions. From dogs with PTSD from war and search-and-rescue missions, to birds with feather-plucking, self-destructive tendencies because they got their wings clipped. From abused circus animals that might respond by becoming overly-vicious or by becoming numb and indifferent to any further inhumane treatment, to animals that are low in the hierarchy of their troop who get picked on to the point that they cease to take an interest in social affairs. From chimpanzees who were frozen by fear in social situations because they were taken from their mothers too soon, to many seemingly bored animals whose boredom led them to obsessive-compulsive acts like hamsters running in their wheels for over 12 hours to complete exhaustion, polar bears who swim figure eights all day long in their swimming pool at the zoo, and dolphins who similarly swim in tight circles all day long in their enclosures. There were even mentions of Harry Harlow's torturous experiments where mother-deprived, baby monkeys would endure starvation with a friendly-looking, soft doll rather than get milk from a metal, unwelcoming doll; showing that many beings prefer to be comforted over having their most basic physiological needs met. It is truly eerie that such familiar complexity afflicts the lives and minds of our evolutionary relatives. And as another proof of life's common ancestry on Earth, many of the pharmaceuticals we use on ourselves to treat mental disorders are used successfully to alter the biochemistry of animals like mice, bears, birds and cats who have seemingly similar mental ailments. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Found Somewhere Warm to Sleep</td></tr>
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A main point and rhetorical question of the book is, "How could an animal lose its mind, if it didn't have one?" Evoking Charles Darwin, from his book The Descent of Man, she emphasizes that if evolution has gradually shaped and differentiated the bodies of species over time, then there's no reason to believe that the same process didn't shape our minds as well. Darwin tried to prove by evolution and natural selection, much science affirming since, that the minds of humans and other animals only differ by degrees and flavors as would be expected if species were related by common descent. After reading the book there was little doubt left in my mind that there was an enormous amount of commonality between our minds and those of other animals because example after example was given of animals who had mental disorders induced by things most people would become troubled by. Being traumatized by seeing death and violence, the experience of torture and other abuses, being separated from loved ones, desiring for companionship, nurturing and love, the need for fairness, the need for routines and certainty, the need for acceptance, boredom, etc. So many unmet needs leading to mental anguish though, like humans, variation in personality affect how different individuals respond to similar conditions. All these unmet needs made me think of Maslow and his Hierarchy of Needs. I did some research and found the original 1943 paper in which the idea was presented called, "A Theory of Human Motivation."<br />
<br />
Abraham Maslow put forward a seemingly stupid theory. Stupid because it seemed so simple and obvious.<br />
<img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg/450px-Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg.png" height="295" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 161px;" width="450" /><br />
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But if we stop to think a little deeper about what he postulated and the implications it might have for people, societies and the biosphere......it seems quite simply profound. The basic premise of the hierarchy of needs as put forward in A Theory of Human Motivation is that, in some way, every person is neurotic, and the source of a person's neurosis is the level of need that is unmet. For instance, if person X has clean air to breathe, good food to eat, clean water to drink, sufficient time to rest per day, enough sexual outlets, etc. (i.e. all the Physiological needs are met), but lacks safety because they live in a war zone...then person X will be neurotic with stress about how to meet their needs for safety. If person X has never known the trauma of Physiological deprivation, then they will take those needs for granted and be overly-concerned with the next level of need, which is safety for person X. All the levels above safety won't concern person X because if they can't even meet their fundamental needs then the higher levels of need won't be practical to waste energy on. This means that a person whose basic needs are not met will not have the time nor energy to expend on things like self-actualization where they fulfill their unique potential as a creative, capable individual nor will benefit from the contributions such a person might make.<br />
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Of course, Maslow recognized that life is more complicated than a simple hierarchy and he really envisaged the Hierarchy of Needs as a graduated pyramid of percentages in that someone might have 60% of their Physiological needs met, 43% of their Safety needs met, 27 % of their Love/Belonging needs met, 13% of their Esteem needs met, and 2% of their Self-Actualization needs met. Maslow also thought it was possible that some people might switch the order of their Hierarchy of Needs, for example, a starving artist might value Self-Actualization more than anything else.<br />
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Maslow felt that people tended to unconsciously take for granted the level(s) of needs that they always had met, but tended to be traumatized and consequently neurotic about the level of need they had experience the most deficiency in. <br />
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I can think of many points of disagreement that I have with Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs though they are more criticisms about things I think he overlooked and should've added. Some things I think he overlooked or underestimated was the need for fairness, a healthy environment and the need for meaning (not just at the last level of Self-Actualization, but every level. For even Viktor Frankl, in Man's Search for Meaning, talked about the importance of finding meaning in life, to go on living, even if you found yourself in a concentration camp.....which he did). Another fundamental point I think Maslow missed, as I tried to illustrate at the beginning of this blog, is that animals just as much as humans have their Hierarchy of Needs too. This should come as no surprise, for humans are just another kind of ape nestled in the kingdom of animals, evolutionarily related to all life on Earth. That we are related means that we share many traits in common, including the capability of being driven mad by not having needs met.<br />
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In a brave, new world driven by technology and information where government has seemed to have taken a backseat to the gods of economy (Supply and Demand, Money and Capital, Productivity and Profit, Commodity and Trade) you'd think that we'd disproven Animal Madness and the Hierarchy of Needs, but I don't think that is the case. Try as we might, we can't escape our biology nor our environment which dictate that certain needs must be met so that we're high-level functioning neurotics and not just down-and-out mad. <br />
Even if you look at life from the standpoint of economics one must accept that people who are overwhelmed and exhausted by the stress of meeting their basic needs are not going to be productive in a way that makes society great. Such stress is the breeding ground for extremism, self-destructiveness and irrationality. A Great Society according to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and a rational society according to Animal Madness would be one that strove to meet as many levels of needs from the bottom up as it could. Because, just like individuals can become neurotic and driven mad by unmet, fundamental needs...so too can societies. If our society only secures the Physiological needs for us citizens, then we'll all be neurotic about trying to meet our safety needs. But if our society uses it resources to meet as many of the needs of its people as it can and if it honors the environment by acknowledging that it and human effort and ingenuity are the only true sources of economic value, then maybe we might become a society which is neurotic about the noble effort of becoming Self-Actualized...rather than driven mad for all the wrong reasons. We must remember that, like all the animals in the world, we are just as capable of being traumatized by our experiences and our unmet needs. Thus we have to answer for ourselves whether such trauma and deprivation for some in our societies and biosphere, while others have much, will lead to the result we desire for. Which is most economically, or otherwise, productive at the end of the day? A few with all their needs met and most others overburdened with the stress of meeting their basic needs....or the masses with as many of their needs met as society can procure striving to ever higher levels of existence? <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Something Like BFF!!!</td></tr>
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-Seth Commichaux<br />
<br />Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-60973322137655758162014-08-26T16:27:00.002-06:002014-08-26T16:33:37.660-06:00Letter to the EditorTo the Editor,<br />
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This letter is in response to the "Monarch Butterflies in Trouble" post on Feb. 11th, 2014.<br />
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One of the icons of many childhood memories seems to be experiencing a population decline. Numbers of the dazzling orange & black Monarch Butterfly have dropped recently due to reduction in habitat in both their breeding and wintering sites.<br />
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It is well known that Monarchs east of the Rockies overwinter in a very few select sites in Mexico. Those along the Pacific Coast journey to Southern California. Not as much is known about those in the Utah Inter-mountain region. <br />
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We want to change that. Here's a chance for the residents of Cache Valley to help do a little scientific data collection.<br />
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The Cache Valley Wildlife Association (Utah member of the National Wildlife Federation), Stokes Nature Center and Bridgerland Audubon are sponsoring a Monarch larva/caterpillar collection project on Saturday, September 6th. All Cache Valley residents are asked to inspect milkweed plants for larvae within their own communities. If you are not certain as to what milkweed plants, or monarch larva, look like come to Nibley City Hall, 455 W. 3200 S., at 9:00am for a quick workshop. We'll be out collecting by 9:30.<br />
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Although Milkweed is not considered a noxious weed by the State or County, it is usually confined to roadside areas where the soil is somewhat moist. Most folks know that it is about three feet tall, has green leaves about six inches long which grow opposite of each other on the stem, will ooze a milky substance if injured, and often has seed pods which my students said resemble pickles. The milk is mildly toxic if taken internally, but the plant is critical to the survival of the Monarch as it is the only species where eggs are laid.<br />
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The harmless larva have yellow-white-black stripes, and have antenna near their head and tails. They are usually found on the underside of the leaves, and are quite fragile so don't drop them. Their max size is about two inches, but the smaller you find them, the better their survival.<br />
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Bring a container and lid large enough to hold several milkweed leaves, and transfer larva into that container very gently. <br />
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Call the number below to learn where to bring your larva, or email me to arrange a pickup in your community.<br />
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The larvae will be well cared for, and will morph into butterflies in about a week. We feed them for 3 days to make certain they are strong enough for long flights. Then they are marked with the small "Utah Code" color and pattern and released to begin their migration. If we can mark and release a good number of them, scientists in California may have a chance to spot them. Our Utah Code will help identify them even if they are up high in trees. Once a migration route and destination are determined people can be encouraged to plant milkweed along that pathway. <br />
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If you collect larva during other dates (like students bringing them to school in jars), please contact us so that we can mark them for you to release later.<br />
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Their migration is truly miraculous since their three proceeding generations have already died off, yet these new babies return to the places that their great-grandparents left in the Spring. Please take a couple of hours to check the milkweeds in your community.<br />
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<br />
Ron Hellstern<br />
Nibley, Utah <br />
<a href="tel:435-512-6938">435-512-6938</a></div>
Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-13930541672872759552014-07-27T21:53:00.000-06:002014-08-01T10:59:50.458-06:00How You Can Tell If A Mantis Shrimp Has Color Vision???!!!The FULL SPECTRUM OF LIGHT OR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION is far wider than the narrow band of VISIBLE LIGHT which humans can see. Light consists of small packets of energy called photons that simultaneously act like waves and particles. Changes in the wavelength of light corresponds with changes in energy. We perceive these different wavelengths/energy-states of light as colors.<img src="http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/emspectrum.gif" height="272" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 56px;" width="640" /><br />
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Waves of light can be as long as several miles (radio waves, not to be confused with sound waves) or much shorter than the diameter of an atom (gamma and cosmic rays). Humans can only see light of wavelengths ~370 nanometers to ~700 nanometers (nanometers are billionths of a meter and symbolized as <b>nm</b>) although it varies somewhat between people and can be quite reduced in people with color-blindness where one or more of the main pigments are missing. Some birds and insects can see light waves as small as ~280 nm well into the ultraviolet range. Some other organisms can see things slightly into the infrared. Humans can only see the part of the light spectrum that we perceive as the rainbow of colors from red to blue, but we still feel infrared as heat and get a tan from ultraviolet rays.<br />
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Scientists can study the range of light that different organisms see by biochemically analyzing the light absorption of different photo-receptors, chromophores, pigments, proteins, oils and other molecules in their eyes that affect the range of light and resolution of their vision. Two such applied methods are called spectrophotometry and electrophysiology. Some information can also be gleaned from DNA sequences as well. It is assumed that the light absorption properties of these bio-molecules reflects the range of vision that an organism actually experiences. Humans, who see from about 370-700 nm, have four main light absorbing pigments that are contained in 3 types of cone cells (absorption peaks at 437 nm, blue cone, 533 nm, green cone, and 564 nm, red cone) and 1 type of rod cell (absorption peak at 498 nm). These pigments are coded for in our genome. The cone cells help us see in color and the rod cells help us see contrast in black, grey and white. The figure below shows the light absorption range of these pigments and as you can see these pigments absorb light from about 370-700 nm. <br />
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In other animals the number and absorption spectrums in their eyes may be quite different. Take a finch for example. <br />
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<img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/BirdVisualPigmentSensitivity.svg/535px-BirdVisualPigmentSensitivity.svg.png" height="384" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 14px;" width="535" /> </div>
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We see that this finch has 4 main color sensing pigments with absorption patterns extending all of the way down into the ultraviolet. Remember that humans only have 3 color absorbing pigments and one pigment that helps us with contrast and can't "detect" color. If a human has 0,1 or 2 instead of the usual three cone cell pigments, they will be color blind maybe only seeing shades of grey, black and white...or maybe unable to see red and green or maybe some other combination of colors. So what does a pigeon see with 4 pigments? Do they see the world in more colors than humans? Are humans unable to see things in nature that other organisms can? And what do organisms experience for vision that have eyes with pigments that absorb into the ultraviolet and infrared? It is known in the case of some insect pollinators like bees and butterflies that they use ultraviolet to see flowers that are advertising that they want to be pollinated. Some flowers "glow" in ultraviolet and display patterns that are thought to lead pollinators to where the nectar is. When an insect gets the nectar and pollinates the flower, the ultraviolet markings often fade. This seems to help insects distinguish between flowers that have already been visited for nectar and those that haven't. Below are pictures of flowers in visible light (left frames) and in ultraviolet (right frames). Just like a person who is color blind will miss cues that are in color, humans are unaware of many natural signs because our senses don't allow us to perceive all that there is to perceive.</div>
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<img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-5527" src="http://larvalsubjects.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/dandeliondm_ultraviolet_light.jpg?w=300&h=249" height="249" title="dandelionDM_ultraviolet_light" width="300" /></div>
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<img alt="" class="alignright size-medium wp-image-5526" src="http://larvalsubjects.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/silverweeddm_800x460.jpg?w=300&h=172" height="172" title="SilverweedDM_800x460" width="300" /></div>
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<br /></div>
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I'm going to dig a little deeper into an interesting example of an organism with eyes that might very well see the world in details and colors we'll never even be able to imagine. It is the Mantis Shrimp. <br />
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<img src="http://cdn.fiboni.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/mantis-shrimp.jpg" height="300" id="irc_mi" sb_id="ms__id9407" style="margin-top: 47px;" width="500" /></div>
<br />
Yes they really are that colorful!!!!! Why did they evolve to be so colorful and why did such a complex vision system evolve in what humans would rather arrogantly consider such a simple creature? How does such an elaborate vision sensory system affect their world view? So many questions I have and not enough time to find out, but I will tell you a little bit about what I know about their amazing eyes!!<br />
<br />
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(For some strange mantis shrimp comic relief check out this video!)</div>
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As of 2014, Mantis Shrimp are known to have at least 16 photoreceptor pigments in their eyes (compared to 3 in humans) with 6 absorbing in the ultraviolet range. This number is increased even further because some of the photoreceptor cells contain a variety of oil droplets (called cone cell droplets) that act like molecular filters that modify the range of light that a particular photoreceptor can absorb. All these components together allows them to see a wide range of colors and probably many more fine gradations of color than humans. It is also known that this array of receptors allows Mantis Shrimp to see linear and circular polarized light.<br />
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<img height="300" id="irc_mi" sb_id="ms__id2175" src="http://arthropoda.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/human-vs-mantis.jpg" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="400" /></div>
<br />
For what purpose they have so many photoreceptor pigments is unknown, but very intriguing (not to mention the sci fi's that could be written about the mystical powers of seeing with 16 color absorbing pigments...perhaps you could see spirits.). Perhaps greater visual acuity is handy for surviving underwater or perhaps the Mantis Shrimp communicate through color signals. No one knows with any certainty right now. Mantis Shrimp, however, are made even more amazing by the fact that they have two eyes that are subdivided into 3 each. So instead of having binocular vision, they combine 6 images into one. <br />
<br />
What's weird about the molecular filters, which essentially increase the number of diverse photoreceptors in the Mantis Shrimp eyes, is that many of the chemical compounds are similar to ultraviolet "sunscreen" molecules that are present in other insect's eyes to protect them from ultraviolet damage. It would be like co-opting the melanin in our skin, which makes our skin darker to protect us from the sun's ultraviolet rays, to make sun glasses that help us see more colors than we would normally. Weird, right? And it seems Mantis Shrimp don't actually manufacture these compounds in their bodies, but get them from their diet and somehow the chemicals get absorbed through the digestive tract into the blood stream where they find their way to the shrimp's eyes. <br />
<br />
Beyond just being a packet of energy that travels in waves, light can carry a lot of information like emotions, symbols and patterns, identification signs, communications, memories, etc. and a lot of the spectrum of light is beyond what our eyes can sense. Are humans color blind to a vast world of tones and hues that other organisms can see and utilize? If we could see more of the light spectrum, what would it tell us about the world we think we know? How should the fact that many species, from chickens to squirrels to butterflies, can see far more colors than we can affect our interpretation of their behavior? Why did vision evolve? When and how did it evolve? Is it a sense that is still evolving? If color was always there, but it took so many millions and billions of years for eyes to evolve so that some organisms could see them what other phenomena are part of our world that we are ignorant of because we lack the sensory apparatus to perceive them? And what does it imply, that though our biology is geared towards survival, we can and do use our biological tools to do so much more than survive, searching for meaning and understanding? So many questions...and as of yet, so few answers.....<br />
<br />
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<img src="http://philfriedmanoutdoors.typepad.com/.a/6a01538eb19425970b017616dbf215970c-pi" height="393" id="irc_mi" sb_id="ms__id7863" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="376" /></div>
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A good video about Mantis Shrimp vision can be found in the short video below.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/glOsvm9t7ec?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<br />
-Seth Commichaux<br />
<br />
Sources:<br />
<br />
Osorio, D., Vorobyev, M., 2008. A review of the evolution of animal colour vision and visual communication signals. Vision Research. Vol 48, pp 2042-2051.<br />
<br />
Bok, M., Porter, M., Place, A., Cronin, T., 2014. Biological Sunscreens Tune Polychromatic Ultraviolet Vision in Mantis Shrimp. Current Biology. Vol 24, pp 1-7.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5FEj9U-CJM">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5FEj9U-CJM</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glOsvm9t7ec">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glOsvm9t7ec</a>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-42047507742849776562014-07-07T10:35:00.000-06:002014-07-07T10:35:08.252-06:00Spider, Anelosimus studiosus: To be or not to be socialYou might think that sociality is a fixed biological trait for some species. For instance, humans might be considered a social species as we instinctually form social units from clans and tribes to states and nations. We also prefer social life, but all these factors are related to our biology. We humans require a lot of care for many years to reach an age where we can take care of ourselves and societies seem to be the best way to incorporate and sustain as huge of a diversity of individuals as compose humanity. But for some species like the spider <i>Anelosimus studiosus</i> sociality is dependent on the forces of environment and biology. They are facultatively social, meaning that they will only form colonies under certain circumstances. Most spider species that are social are web builders. Amongst spiders social behavior is believed to have independently evolved 12-13 times. These social spiders can be split up into two groups: colonial and cooperative. In colonial species, many spiders share the same web, but they compete for territory and hunting rights on the communal web. In cooperative species, many males, females and juveniles build/maintain a common web and rather than competing for hunting space on the web like colonial species, they cooperatively capture and share prey as well as collectively raise the next generation. In cooperative species there are often more females than males. Many spiders that aren't strictly social still have maternal care (that's right, motherhood has a long evolutionary history!).<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://b.bimg.dk/node-images/420/6/620x/6420407-flinke-edderkopper-kommer-sidst.jpg" height="225" id="irc_mi" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 32px;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Anelosimus studiosus</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<i>Anelosimus studiosus </i>can be found from Argentina to New England. The study I read dealt with differences in social behavior between populations of <i>Anelosimus studiosus</i> in Florida and Tennessee. In Florida a typical colony was described as:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Composed of one adult female, her juvenile offspring and a few unrelated males that don't participate in web maintenance or communal prey capture. The mother guards her egg case and feeds the newly emerged spiderlings through regurgitation. As the juveniles grow, they increasingly participate in web maintenance and prey capture. During this time, the mother accepts the entry of foreign juveniles and males into the nest while driving off intruding adult females. The colonies are ephemeral because the spiderlings disperse upon reaching maturity and the mother eventually dies. The young males often disperse first to go searching for mates while the young females are later driven off by their mother. When the mother dies, it isn't unusual for another adult female to come along and use the web to raise her own offspring. (1)</blockquote>
In Tennessee, many colonies exist that are like the single-female-and-offspring ones described in Florida, but a new type of cooperative colony behavior appears that consists of:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Multiple females (3.7 females on average) cooperatively sharing a web, with cooperative foraging, communal brood care (baby spider daycare), and communal building/maintaining of the shared web. (1)</blockquote>
Why are there only single-female-and-offspring colonies down South in Florida? And why is there a mixture of single-female-and-offspring colonies as well as multiple-female-and-offspring colonies further North in Tennessee? Other trends to take note of with <i>Anelosimus studiosus </i>colonies are that the density of colonies goes down, and the spider webs get much bigger as you move from Florida-to-Tennessee. Can we decipher any environmental, evolutionary and/or biological reasons that might explain these patterns?<br />
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<img src="http://theearlybirder.com/Arachnid/cobweb/images/248231%20Anelosimus%20studiosus.jpg" height="313" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 50px;" width="450" /></div>
<br />
A key to this puzzle is that juveniles require a lot of parental care for an extended period of time. An advantage to communal parenting is that "if a mother dies in a multiple-female colony, the surviving females can foster the deceased female's brood." (1) If the single mother of a single-female colony dies, so will her brood. But if this is the case, why aren't all of the spiders communal? Wouldn't natural selection favor communal parenting because it's a hedged-bet against the sometimes irrational environment? Yes and no. As it turns out, communal, adult females tend to have less offspring and have to spend more energy on colony activities on average than females who strike out on their own. So the trade-off is between security<br />
and reproductive success. So what is it about Florida vs. Tennessee that makes being a lone mother vs. a communal mother good strategies, respectively?<br />
<br />
A clue to the kind of sociality <i>Anelosimus studiosus </i>practices can be found in the environment. <i>Anelosimus studiosus</i> spiders are most commonly found near water bodies like rivers and lakes. From Tennessee to Florida there is great variation in air and, correspondingly, water temperature (Average air temperatures: @ latitude 26 degrees North in Southern Flordia is 23.5 degrees Celsius. @ latitude 31 degrees North in Northern Florida is 19.5 degrees Celsius. @ 36 degrees North in Tennessee is 14.5 degrees Celsius.) It tends toward the waters being warmer in Florida and colder in Tennessee. For <i>Anelosimus studiosus </i>as air and water temperature decreases so does the rate of development of the offspring (Mean time for juveniles to reach independence of mother: @ 22 degrees Celsius, 45.5 days. @ 27 degrees Celsius, 28.7 days. Thus about 5 degrees difference in average temperature affects almost a two-fold difference in rate of development!). This means that where air and water temperatures are colder there is a greater likelihood that the mothers will die while raising their offspring because the cold causes the spiderlings to develop slower. There is also the issue that there is higher juvenile mortality in colder climes. Thus, where it is colder it is a good strategy to form colonies because if a mother dies the other mothers will pick up the slack. Additionally, there is a higher risk that juveniles will die in colder places without proper care. A community, evidently, is a better parent in these circumstances than an individual mother. <br />
<br />
We can explain why the average size of colony webs becomes larger as you move north. As you move North the proportion of multiple-female colonies goes up. In Southern Florida there are only single-female webs, in Northern Florida there is only a small percentage of multiple-female colonies, and in Tennessee there is an even higher proportion of multiple-female colonies though it should be noted that for all locations single-female webs were the most common. The seeming reason why colonies become more widely dispersed as you move North is that the environment becomes harsher by <i>Anelosimus studiosus </i>spider terms (meaning colder and perhaps less rain and vegetation). <br />
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<img src="http://bugguide.net/images/raw/ZSUQRSVQZSPQ10SK2KQKB0HKWKPQWKLKO0SK9K2QD0QKT0SKEK4QC04QEKHKNK2QHS1QVK9QA09Q30.jpg" height="396" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 8px;" width="560" /></div>
<br />
One of the interesting statement/conclusions in the paper I derived this blog from is that:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
cooperation can allow populations to expand into and persist under harsher circumstances than individuals could otherwise endure.</blockquote>
It isn't that the spiders become tougher as you move North that allows them survive, but the fact that they work together toward a common destiny that allows them to endure harsher conditions. Something to keep in mind for our lives I think.<br />
<br />
A question that comes to my mind is if this example of facultative-sociality is just a case of instincts being switched-between based upon environmental conditions or if there is a level of recognition and agreement between the female spiders. Do they recognize the potential for their own mortality in some harsh environments and the affect it would have on their brood? Do the spiders recognize the utility of cooperating in these circumstances? Afterall, not all of the spiders choose to form communities, even in colder climes. Is it the less "fit" individuals that find it too hard to survive on their own in the cold locales who choose to band together as a solution, communally building/maintaining nests, cooperatively foraging, and communally caring for the baby spiders? If this was true, it might be, as Darwin said in The Descent of Man, that humans became social because we were too weak to survive on our own. If you're strong and self-sufficient you'd be better off not cooperating. Yet it does seem to be weakness that brings us together, but united we become so much stronger than the sum of strong individuals competing for their own, selfish interests could ever be.<br />
<br />
I hope to instill all my readers with a sense of complexity about all the creatures I speak of. Assuming simplicity about things has been the source of much confusion and suffering. It's taken a lot for people to see each other as more than black or white, or, good or evil. Similarly, we too often assume that organisms other than humans are just instinctually-driven automatons. But with just a little effort at delving into the world of those we don't understand, we soon find ourselves coming to the realization that nothing and no one can be simply defined and disregarded.<br />
<br />
-Seth Commichaux<br />
<br />
Sources Cited:<br />
1) Jones, T., Riechert, S., Dalrymple, S., Parker, P., 2006. Fostering Model Explains Variation in Levels of Sociality in a Spider System. Animal Behavior vol. 73, pg 195-204. Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-62497556368697906792014-06-11T14:58:00.001-06:002014-06-11T14:58:32.742-06:00Utah's Enlightened 50Congratulations to Andree' Walker Bravo and the 49 other amazing Utahans who were recognized as the state's most enlightened 50 individuals!<br />
<br />
The Community Foundation of Utah recognizes 50 individuals each year who make a difference in Utah through innovation, collaboration, and commitment to the common good! <br />
<br />
To view this year's E-50, please visit: <a href="http://utahcf.org/our-initiatives/The-e-50/">http://utahcf.org/our-initiatives/The-e-50/</a>. <br />
Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-89480940944279406442014-06-10T13:46:00.000-06:002014-06-11T08:04:29.748-06:00Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Blog #2 Summary of 2014 Report<u><b><span style="font-size: medium;">MY PURPOSE</span></b></u> <br />
<br />
Global Warming/Climate Change is a contentious issue of modern times,
but too important of an issue, with implications for everyone on Earth,
to ignore and for us to remain uninformed about the scientific evidence
and predictions about its consequences for us and the rest of the
biosphere. The scientific literature is building and consensus about
its reality, as well as the evidence that its major driver is human
activity, is growing. Between 1970 and 1990 less than 1,000 scientific
articles, books and conference proceedings were published about climate
change in English. However, by the end of 2012 there were over 102,000
and the number is dramatically increasing as more and more people are
affected and become aware of global warming/climate change. When you
include scientific articles from Africa, Asia, Latin America, Europe and
Australia, the number is even greater.<br />
<br />
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a major
organization founded by the United Nation's World Meteorological
Organization<span style="color: black;"></span> (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), has recently released (March 31,
2014) one of the most comprehensive reports and analysis of climate
change to date. It also includes some of the most sophisticated,
scientific models for predicting future outcomes of Global
Warming/Climate change. I've taken it upon myself to read as much of
the IPCC report as I humanly can and to write a blog series summarizing
and citing its findings to inform you about the current state of science
on the issue of Global Warming/Climate Change. It was reviewed by 1729
experts from 84 countries, had 436 contributing authors from 54
countries and over12,000 scientific references were cited. The panel
made a conscious effort to have a diverse and fair representation of
authors and reviewers, both in terms of gender and national background,
to minimize political, religious and cultural biases.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Summary and Citations From Technical Summary of Work Group I of IPCC</b></u><br />
<br />
"The period 1983–2012 was very likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 800 years and likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years. Although a certain amount of future climate change is already ‘in the
system’ due to the current radiative imbalance caused by historical
emissions and the long lifetime of some atmospheric forcing agents (greenhouse gases),
societal choices can still have a very large effect on future...climate change.""<br />
<br />
There's no doubt that the temperature of the Earth is increasing as it can be and has been directly measured for the past 150 years. Indirectly, the temperature of the Earth and atmospheric gas concentrations can be measured from ice cores and other geological evidence. This record shows a very strong correlation between atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as other greenhouse gases to a lesser extent, and the global mean temperature. Because a sharp rise in greenhouse gases and global mean temperature has been observed starting around 1750 and the Industrial Revolution, when the mass combustion of fossil fuels producing copious amounts of carbon dioxide began, it can be inferred with great confidence that humans are causing global warming.<br />
<br />
"Concentrations of the atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in 2011 exceed the
range of concentrations recorded in ice cores during the past 800,000 years."<br />
<br />
"Between 1750 and 2011, CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and
cement production are estimated from energy and fuel use statistics to
have released ~750 trillion pounds of carbon. In 2002–2011, average
fossil fuel and cement manufacturing emissions were ~16.6 trillion
pounds of carbon per year, with an average growth rate of 3.2% per
year. This rate of increase of fossil fuel emissions is higher than
during the 1990s (1.0% per year). In 2011, fossil fuel emissions
released ~19 trillion pounds of carbon. Between 1750 and 2011, land use
change (mainly deforestation), derived from land cover data and
modelling, is estimated to have released ~360 trillion pounds of carbon.
Land use change emissions between 2002 and 2011 are dominated by
tropical deforestation, and are estimated at 1.8 trillion pounds of
carbon per year, with possibly a small decrease from the 1990s due to
lower reported forest loss during this decade. This estimate includes
gross deforestation emissions of around 6 trillion pounds of carbon per
year compensated by around 4 trillion pounds of carbon per year of
forest regrowth in some regions, mainly abandoned agricultural land."<br />
<br />
"Of
the approximately 1.1 quadrillion pounds of carbon released to the
atmosphere from fossil fuel and land use emissions from 1750 to 2011,
480 trillion pounds of carbon accumulated in the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
"An independent line of evidence for the anthropogenic origin of the observed atmospheric CO2 increase<br />
comes from the observed consistent decrease in atmospheric [and oceanic] oxygen (O2) content."<br />
<br />
"The concentration of
CH4 has increased by a factor of 2.5 since preindustrial times, from
722 parts per billion in 1750 to 1803 parts per billion in 2011. There is very high confidence that the atmospheric CH4 increase
during the Industrial Era is caused by anthropogenic activities. The
massive increase in the number of ruminants, the emissions from fossil
fuel extraction and use, the expansion of rice paddy agriculture and the
emissions from landfills and waste are the dominant anthropogenic CH4
sources. Anthropogenic emissions account for 50 to 65% of total
emissions." <br />
<br />
"Since pre-industrial times, the concentration of N2O in the atmosphere has increased by a factor of 1.2" <br />
<br />
Earth absorbs more solar radiation because of the increased presence of these greenhouse gases and the Earth gets warmer as a result. Interestingly though, "ocean warming dominates that total heating rate, with full ocean depth
warming accounting for about 93%, and warming of the
upper (0 to 700 m) ocean accounting for about 64%. Melting ice
(including Arctic sea ice, ice sheets and glaciers) and warming of the
continents each account for 3% of the total. Warming of the atmosphere
makes up the remaining 1%...........The majority of this additional heat is in the upper 700 m of the
ocean, but there is also warming in the deep and abyssal ocean." <br />
<br />
The ocean's ability to absorb heat is perhaps the one factor scientists underestimated when creating models for global warming in the past. The ocean seems to be like a sponge for heat that has slowed the overall process of the warming of the Blue Planet thus far. A kilogram of water and a kilogram of air could absorb the same amount of energy, but the air will increase in temperature far more than water will. What's strange, but kind of cool, is that all the energy the ocean has absorbed hasn't raised its temperature much, but it has made it expand causing the sea level to rise slightly. Remember that temperature is the measure of molecular motion. When an object is hotter the molecules are moving faster and the object expands.<br />
<br />
"The ocean has stored about 93% of the increase in energy in the climate system over recent decades, resulting in ocean thermal expansion and hence sea level rise............The
associated thermal expansion of the ocean has contributed about 40% of
the observed sea level rise since 1970." (Overall, the ocean has been measured to have risen by about 8 inches over the period of 1901–2010.) <br />
<br />
It's good for us, on land, that the ocean has absorbed most of the heat because if it hadn't we might've baked by now, but the bad thing is that the extra heat energy in the ocean affects the ocean currents.<br />
<br />
"Recent observations have strengthened evidence for variability in major
ocean circulation systems on time scales from years to decades. It is
very likely that the subtropical gyres in the North Pacific and South
Pacific have expanded and strengthened since 1993." <br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img src="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/player/lesson12/images/surface_currents_big.gif" height="206" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 41px;" width="400" /></div>
<br />
<br />
Messing with ocean currents is a bad thing because ocean currents have a major impact on weather over the land. It affects climate and temperature along the coast as well as cloud conditions and precipitation. <br />
<br />
"Warming could lead to changes in ocean current patterns that could have
drastic impacts on climate the world over. Changing patterns of drought
and monsoon as well as temperatures. Could also effect the melting of
permafrost which would allow for the decomposition of the organic carbon
therein releasing much CO2 (carbon dioxide) and CH4 (methane). [Resulting in the] retreat of the Boreal forest as well as causing shifts in the ranges of many animals and plants, which would exacerbate trends that we're
already seeing, possibly leading to extinction of vulnerable species
which are not that adaptable nor mobile." <br />
<br />
In the most extreme cases it can cause super-powerful storms, like hurricanes, which can lead to great damage and loss of life.<br />
<br />
"Over the satellite era, increases in the frequency and intensity of the strongest storms in the North Atlantic are robust."<br />
<br />
In addition to causing stronger storms global warming will lead to higher evaporation rates and thus the average global humidity will rise as well as the amount of precipitation; even though there will be more precipitation overall, however, it is predicted to be more sporadic with increased intermittent times of drought. In addition, "changes of average precipitation in a much warmer world will not be
uniform, with some regions experiencing increases, and others with
decreases or not much change at all." This sporadic precipitation falling with greater intensity and the increased periods of intermittent drought will place a strain on crops and food production.<br />
<br />
"High latitudes are very likely to experience greater amounts of
precipitation....Many mid-latitude and subtropical arid and
semi-arid regions will likely experience less precipitation and many
moist mid-latitude regions will likely experience more precipitation by
the end of this century."<br />
<br />
The warming of the oceans and atmosphere acting in synergy have caused glaciers and the polar ice caps to recede, the extent of permafrost to retreat, as well as a reduction in the amount of snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere during winters.<br />
<br />
"there is very high confidence that the Arctic sea ice extent
(annual, multi-year and perennial) decreased over the period 1979–2012.
The rate of the annual decrease was very likely between 3.5 and 4.1%
per decade." <br />
<br />
"There is high confidence that the average
winter sea ice thickness within the Arctic Basin decreased between 1980
and 2008. The average decrease was likely between 1.3 m and 2.3 m."<br />
<br />
It could be possible that the Arctic ice cap will change from perennially covered to seasonally covered in our lifetimes. This would wreak havoc on the animals that call the Arctic ice their home.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a class="iol_imc" href="https://www.blogger.com/null" idx="5" style="height: 393px; left: 495px; top: 137px; visibility: visible; width: 590px;"><img class="mainImage" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfe7t54Nz1LBYxCv04G_53NW3VNWIIA93uSKWCDbLWGllrA6XZS9b1Vlq_NYMQ3j_RhpzJaXx84hwp0m-s7PE6lGfvAB-q05r7SMfAqB2hAYvSZATTjmlZgUW7RoS89CIZJl9C9DIm9cY/s1600/polar+bear+funny+pictures+(32).jpg" style="background-color: white; height: 393px; width: 590px;" /></a> </div>
"There is high confidence that the Antarctic ice sheet has been losing ice during the last two decades"<br />
<br />
"The
available evidence indicates that global warming beyond a threshold
would lead to the near-complete loss of the Greenland ice sheet over a
millennium or longer, causing a global mean sea level rise of
approximately 7 m (~23 feet)."<br />
<br />
Even though we are adding a lot of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, resulting in the warming of the Earth and its oceans, a great proportion of the carbon we've released has ended up in the biosphere (mostly through plants and other photosynthetic organisms), oceans and sediments. These carbon sinks have slowed the rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and thus have slowed the rate of climate change (this is why ecosystem services are so important!)<br />
<br />
"The human
caused excess of CO2 in the atmosphere is partly removed from the
atmosphere by carbon sinks in land ecosystems and in the ocean,
currently leaving less than half of the CO2 emissions in the atmosphere.
Natural carbon sinks are due to physical, biological and chemical
processes acting on different time scales. An excess of atmospheric CO2
supports photosynthetic CO2 fixation by plants that is stored as plant
biomass or in the soil. The residence times of stored carbon on land
depends on the compartments (plant/soil) and composition of the organic
carbon, with time horizons varying from days to centuries. The increased
storage in terrestrial ecosystems not affected by land use change is
likely to be caused by enhanced photosynthesis at higher CO2 levels and
nitrogen deposition, and changes in climate favoring carbon sinks such
as longer growing seasons in mid-to-high latitudes."<br />
<br />
"An excess of atmospheric CO2
absorbed by land ecosystems gets stored as organic matter in
diverse carbon pools, from short-lived (leaves, fine roots) to
long-lived (stems, soil carbon)."<br />
<br />
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<img src="http://www.poweranimalsunleashed.com/images/forest-light-900.jpg" height="412" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="515" /></div>
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"The
uptake of anthropogenic CO2 by the ocean is primarily a response to
increasing CO2 in the atmosphere. Excess atmospheric CO2 absorbed by the
surface ocean or transported to the ocean through aquatic systems
(e.g., rivers, groundwaters) gets buried in coastal sediments or
transported to deep waters where it is stored for decades to centuries.
The deep ocean carbon can dissolve ocean carbonate sediments to store
excess CO2 on time scales of centuries to millennia. Within a 1,000 years, the
remaining atmospheric fraction of the CO2 emissions will be between 15
and 40%, depending on the amount of carbon released.
On geological time scales of 10,000 years or longer, additional CO2 is removed
very slowly from the atmosphere by rock weathering, pulling the
remaining atmospheric CO2 fraction down to 10 to 25% after 10,000 years." An unfortunate side-effect of the ocean absorbing CO2 is that it acidifies the water (the ocean has seen a 26% increase in acidity over the past 250 years). This is bad because the extra acidity dissolves the coral reefs, which can take thousands of years for the organisms to build, and any marine organisms that make calcium carbonate shells. <br />
<br />
In fact, increased CO2 in the atmosphere is predicted to increase the amount of plant biomass on Earth, especially in desert areas through a phenomena called the Carbon Dioxide Fertilization Effect. CO2 is a limiting nutrient in many environments and it reduces the amount of growth in plants, but with an excess of CO2 in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels plants put on more biomass until other nutrients in the soil like nitrogen and phosphorous become limiting to growth. One might think that plants are going to offset global warming by up-taking the excess CO2, but in fact we are producing too much greenhouse gases for plant growth to keep up and offset our activities. Additionally, the accelerated rate of plant growth due to higher atmospheric CO2 levels is bad for soils because it will cause nitrogen and phosphorous depletion which are essential nutrients for building proteins and nucleic acids. <br />
<br />
"It is very likely, based on new experimental results and modelling,
that nutrient shortage will limit the effect of rising atmospheric CO2
on future land carbon sinks. There is high
confidence that low nitrogen availability will limit carbon storage on
land even when considering anthropogenic nitrogen deposition. The role
of phosphorus limitation is more uncertain."<br />
<br />
Some skeptics wonder if other natural forces might be causing global warming other than human activity. They might question whether the sun has increased its energy output or if volcanoes have released more carbon dioxide lately than normal.<br />
<br />
It is true that the Earth's climate oscillates over time and that in the past there were periods of higher temperatures with higher atmospheric carbon dioxide levels than modern times.<br />
<br />
<br />
"During warm intervals of the mid Pliocene (3.3 to 3.0 million years ago), there's medium confidence that global mean temperatures were 1.9°C to 3.6°C warmer than the pre-industrial climate and with carbon dioxide (CO2) levels that were between 350 and 450 ppm (modern times is at about 400 ppm), there is high confidence that the global mean sea level was above present, but by no more than 20m (65 feet)."<br />
<br />
"There is very high confidence that the maximum global mean sea level during the last interglacial period (129 to 116,000 years ago) was, for several thousand years, at least 5m (16.25 feet) higher than present and high confidence that it did not exceed 10m (323.5 feet) above present, implying substantial contributions from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. This change in sea level occurred in the context of different orbital forcing and with high-latitude surface temperature, averaged over several thousand years, at least 2°C warmer than present."<br />
<br />
"During the Early
Eocene (52 to 48 million years ago), atmospheric CO2 concentration exceeded about 1000
ppm and the global mean temperature was 9°C to 14°C higher than for
pre-industrial conditions."<br />
<br />
It is also true that volcanic eruptions and changes in the sun's solar output have effects on the Earth's climate, but the record is pretty clear that these variables are not driving modern climate change. In truth, volcanoes can often have a cooling effect on the Earth's climate by blocking the sunlight with particulate matter.<br />
<br />
"Explosive volcanic eruptions (such as El Chichón in Mexico in 1982
and Mt Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991) can inject sulphur dioxide
into the stratosphere, giving rise to stratospheric aerosol, which
persists for several years. Stratospheric aerosol reflects some of the incoming solar radiation and thus gives a negative forcing (negative forcing is the same as global cooling in this context). Large tropical volcanic eruptions have played an
important role in driving annual to decadal scale climate change during
the Industrial Era owing to their sometimes very large negative RF." This is saying that volcanoes do and have played an important role in climate change over the past 250 years, but the majors effect on climate has been cooling.<br />
<br />
"The emissions of CO2 from volcanic eruptions are at least 100 times
smaller than anthropogenic emissions, and inconsequential for climate on
century time scales."<br />
<br />
"Solar forcing is the only known natural forcing acting to warm the
climate over the 1951–2010 period but it has increased much less than greenhouse-gas-induced-climate-forcing, and the observed pattern of long-term tropospheric
warming and stratospheric cooling is not consistent with the expected
response to solar irradiance variations. Considering this evidence
together with the assessed contribution of natural forcings to observed
trends over this period, it is assessed that the contribution from solar
forcing to the observed global warming since 1951 is extremely
unlikely to be larger than that from greenhouse-gas-induced-climate-forcing. Because solar forcing has
very likely decreased over a period with direct satellite measurements
of solar output<b> from 1986 to 2008, there is high confidence that changes
in total solar irradiance have not contributed to global warming during
that period.</b> However, there is medium confidence that the 11-year cycle
of solar variability influences decadal climate fluctuations in some
regions through amplifying mechanisms." <br />
<br />
"Solar and volcanic forcings are the two dominant <b>natural</b> (as opposed to human-caused) contributors to global climate change during the Industrial Era, but there is strong evidence that <b>excludes</b> solar forcing, volcanoes and
internal variability as the strongest drivers of warming since 1950."<br />
<br />
<u><b>CONCLUSION</b></u><br />
<br />
All this evidence pretty overwhelmingly proves that humans are the major driver of modern climate change/global warming and it is being done mainly through the burning of fossil fuels which produces the major culprit greenhouse gases CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane), and NO2.<br />
<br />
In the next blog of this series I will summarize the last part of the IPCC report which talks more specifically about the impacts to human societies and the environment as well as recommendations for courses of action by the international community to head off this potentially devastating, impending disaster known as climate change/global warming.<br />
<br />
-Seth Commichaux<br />
<br />
Source Cited:<br />
Technical Summary of Work Group I of IPCC<br />
<a href="http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_TS_FINAL.pdf">http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_TS_FINAL.pdf</a>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-48637815341551810432014-05-19T13:57:00.000-06:002014-06-28T22:52:01.726-06:00More Reasons To Go Organic: The Dirty Dozen Crops That Use The Most Pesticides<br />
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There are many reasons why organically grown crops are becoming more and more desirable. For one, it tends to support local farmers, better wages and fairer trade. But another reason, that this article deals with directly, is about the benefits to our health. Our health referring not just to those who consume the produce of others labor, but also the health of those who grow our food and who take it to market.<br />
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I both listened to a podcast and read a new report by the Environmental Working Group which I will summarize for you here if you don't find time to listen to it. I will list the links in my blog if you want the whole, unabridged story from the source. Hopefully, my commentary will encourage you to look at the source for yourself as we live in an age where there is too much secondhand knowledge.<br />
<br />
The story I listened to was a podcast by Living On Earth about a new study by the Environmental Working Group that lists, from most-to-least, the 48 food crops that have the most residual pesticides that can't be washed off. Here is the link to the story: ( <a href="http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=14-P13-00019&segmentID=3">http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=14-P13-00019&segmentID=3</a> ). I emphasize here CAN'T BE WASHED OFF! Therefore, if you ingest these crops you will also be ingesting the pesticides even if you try your darnedest to clean them. <br />
<br />
The top 12 crops (the dirty dozen), ordered from most-to-least, with the most residual pesticides are:<br />
<br />
1) apples<br />
2) strawberries<br />
3) grapes<br />
4) celery<br />
5) peaches<br />
6) spinach<br />
7) sweet bell peppers<br />
8) nectarines-imported<br />
9) cucumbers<br />
10) cherry tomatoes<br />
11) snap peas-imported<br />
12) potatoes<br />
<br />
The top 12 cleanest crops, from cleanest-to-less-clean, are:<br />
<br />
1) avocados<br />
2) sweet corn<br />
3) pineapples <br />
4) cabbage<br />
5) sweet peas-frozen<br />
6) onions<br />
7) asparagus<br />
8) mangoes<br />
9) papayas<br />
10) kiwis<br />
11) eggplants<br />
12) grapefruit<br />
<br />
Link to ratings of the full 48 food crop list by pesticide use. <b>Keep in mind that these are pesticides that cannot be washed off!</b><br />
<a href="http://www.ewg.org/foodnews/list.php#">http://www.ewg.org/foodnews/list.php#</a><br />
<br />
Link to the full report by the Environmental Working Group is worth a browsing as it addresses some of the failures of the EPA to regulate agribusiness and to inform the public about what we are eating and what potential risks might be associated with it.<br />
<a href="http://www.ewg.org/foodnews/summary.php">http://www.ewg.org/foodnews/summary.php</a><br />
<br />
<u><b>Some quotable quotes from the Executive Summary:</b></u><br />
<br />
Parents' concerns have been validated by the American Academy of Pediatrics, which in 2012 issued an important report that said that children have "unique susceptibilities to [pesticide residues'] potential toxicity." The pediatricians' organization cited research that linked pesticide exposures in early life and "pediatric cancers, decreased cognitive function, and behavioral problems."<br />
<br />
European regulators are several steps ahead of their American counterparts. Over the past several years, they have raised new questions about the safety and ecological dangers of a group of pesticides known as neonicotinoids. These chemicals are suspected of disrupting human brain development and of killing honeybees and other beneficial insects.<br />
<br />
USDA testing has found neonicotinoid residues on about 20 percent of all produce samples and as much as 60 percent of broccoli, cauliflower, grapes, spinach and summer squash. <br />
<br />
The European Commission has banned diphenylamine, DPA for short, on fruit raised in the 28 European Union member states and has imposed tight restrictions on imported fruit. DPA, a growth regulator and antioxidant, is applied after harvest to most apples conventionally grown in the U.S. and to some U.S.-grown pears, to prevent the fruit skin from discoloring during months of cold storage.<br />
<br />
U.S. officials have not followed the Europeans in restricting either neonicotinoids or DPA.<br />
<br />
Every sample of imported nectarines and 99 percent of apple samples tested positive for at least one pesticide residue.<br />
<br />
The average potato had more pesticides by weight than any other food.<br />
<br />
A single grape sample contained 15 pesticides.<br />
<br />
Single samples of celery, cherry tomatoes, imported snap peas and strawberries showed 13 different pesticides apiece.<br />
<br />
Avocados were the cleanest: only 1 percent of avocado samples showed any detectable pesticides.<br />
<br />
Some 89 percent of pineapples, 82 percent of kiwi, 80 percent of papayas, 88 percent of mango and 61 percent of cantaloupe had no residues.<br />
<br />
No single fruit sample from the Clean Fifteen™ tested positive for more than 4 types of pesticides.<br />
<br />
Detecting multiple pesticide residues is extremely rare on Clean Fifteen™ vegetables. Only 5.5 percent of Clean Fifteen samples had two or more pesticides.<br />
<br />
Leafy greens - kale and collard greens - and hot peppers do not meet traditional Dirty Dozen™ ranking criteria but were frequently contaminated with insecticides that are toxic to the human nervous system. EWG recommends that people who eat a lot of these foods buy organic instead.<br />
<br />
The USDA's most recent pesticide monitoring data included hundreds of samples of applesauce, carrots, peaches and peas packaged as baby food (USDA 2014). Because cooking reduces levels of pesticides and baby food is cooked before packaging, it tends to contain lower pesticide residues than comparable raw produce.<br />
<br />
The U.S. has no special rules for pesticide residues in baby food. <br />
<br />
The USDA detected 10 different pesticides on at least 5 percent of 777 samples of peach baby food sold in the U.S (USDA 2014). Nearly a third of the peach baby food samples would violate the European guideline for pesticides in baby food because they contain one or several pesticides at concentrations of 0.01 part per million or higher.<br />
<br />
The USDA tested 396 baby food applesauce samples for five pesticides (USDA 2014). Some 18 percent of the samples contained acetamiprid, a neonicotinoid pesticide that EC regulators singled out for additional toxicity testing because it might disrupt the developing nervous system (EFSA 2013). Another 17 percent of the samples contained carbendiazim, a fungicide.<br />
<br />
The USDA found six pesticides in apple juice, a staple of many children's diets (USDA 2014). About 14 percent of the apple juice samples contained DPA.<br />
<br />
<u><b>Editorial Comment:</b></u><br />
<br />
The most outrageous aspect of pesticide use, in my opinion, isn't about consumption, but production. The farm workers of the United States of America and worldwide, who grow, cultivate and harvest the produce that finds its way to our tables, often tend to be poor, underpaid, over-worked, benefit-less, exploited, exposed to unreasonably hazardous conditions without protection and (at least in the case of the U.S.) are right-less, subject to deportation and to being torn apart from their friends and family. From many of the reports cited by the Environmental Working Group and from reports and scientific articles that I have personally read, it tends to be the farm laborers in the USA who are most adversely affected by pesticide use, not consumers. These people who have much higher exposure to these poisons have much higher rates of cancer, birth defects and other health issues (such as respiratory and reproductive problems) than the average person in the USA. This might be a mere coincidence or it might be more than an anomalous correlation that points to the toxicity of the pesticides which are used and that these people are disproportionately exposed to.<br />
<br />
What might even be more unjust than the exploitation of these people for our cheap food is the fact that it is known that many of these substances are particularly detrimental to pregnant women and to developing fetuses and children. It seems unjust enough to exploit desperate people, but then to destroy the hope they've worked for, the well-being of and betterment of life for their children, by causing mental and physical development defects through the irresponsible use of toxins seems to demand a change in social policy.<br />
<br />
On a different note I might add here that there are more responsible ways of growing food than the indiscriminate use of pesticides. It may not be possible to grow all food crops for 7+ billion people on a totally organic basis, but there are many alternatives that would allow for organically grown crops to supplement much of the yield that would still require pesticides. But for this transition to occur, organically grown foods would have to be cheaper and more accessible for all members of society. This might require a subsidy program by the government, but seeing how the government sees fit to subsidize other socially-necessary commodities like oil and natural gas extraction, I don't see how they could rationalize not subsidizing something as socially-necessary as food.<br />
<br />
-Seth CommichauxAnonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-21760485282948463162014-04-21T13:06:00.000-06:002014-04-21T15:20:48.239-06:00What Does The Environment Do For Us?A lot of people that I've talked to or overheard in conversation when talking about why the environment should be saved in a "wilderness" state often give the beauty of nature or the transcendental experience of being in a wilder setting as reasons. Many find peace of mind, artistic inspiration and a sense of connectedness with the universe wandering in the great out-of-doors. Some also note that you need to save wilderness areas to provide habitat for the animals and plants that call those places home. If you lose those places you'll lose the animals and plants as well. <br />
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All of these reasons are good reasons to preserve our natural inheritance, but for people who are more business oriented or who don't enjoy nature that much might not be convinced that these reasons are sufficient to override the necessity for development and resource harvesting.</div>
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I was reading an interesting paper from BioScience journal called, "Linking Ecology and Economics for Ecosystem Management" that tried to take a more quantitative approach to valuing ecosystem services for the purpose of taking into account what monetary value is being lost by developing natural ecosystems. </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img class="irc_mut" src="http://simpleclimate.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/e640248-deforestation_in_brazil_from_space-spl.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px;" width="433" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A satellite image of deforestation</td></tr>
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At the most fundamental level humans and most other organisms (perhaps some bacteria are exceptions) could not survive long without the complex networks of services that we provide for one another. All lifeforms are totally interdependent and are players in complex cycles where everything gets used and recycled.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.biologycorner.com/resources/foodweb.jpg" height="346" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 37px;" width="446" /> </div>
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Ecosystem services are all the benefits that humans obtain from
ecosystems and the biosphere. These services come in many forms and we'll go through many examples so that the next time someone, who maybe doesn't appreciate the beauty of nature, asks you why the environment should be preserved you'll be able to give some other, more utilitarian/anthropocentric, reasons.</div>
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Beyond beauty and the artistic/spiritual value of nature, and beyond the fact that many plants and animals call these wild places home, many people value nature for the purpose of all kinds of recreation from camping, hiking, canoeing, biking and other outdoor sports to photography, birdwatching, site-seeing, etc. </div>
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At a more utilitarian level, we receive all of the necessities of life from the environment. Everything we see in our homes and our communities came from the environment. Perhaps it was metal ore from deep in the ground that was used to make railroad tracks, skyscrapers, bridges, machines, tools, parts in our cellphones and computers. Perhaps it was coal, oil, or natural gas that now is being combusted to move our cars, trains, planes or to produce electricity. Maybe it was wood cut down in the Pacific Northwest or the Amazonian Rainforest that is now our tables, desks, cupboards, bookshelves, doors or house-frames. Maybe it was some plant harvested for food, drink, chemicals, lotion, medicine or fuel. Maybe it was a medicinal herb that helps soothe a cold or a compound produced by a bacteria with anti-cancer properties. Maybe it was some animal that was slaughtered for food, clothing, or apparel. Everything comes from the environment whether near or far. It can be fun to look at something like a computer and to try to deconstruct it down to its components and trying to guess where it all came from, how it was made, and who made it.<br />
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The provisioning of raw resources are more commonplace services that the environment provides, that many of us are aware of, though we may often forget them and take their complexity for granted (for instance, we might eat a cow, but what was necessary for that cow to survive? It needed to eat grass, the grass needs sunlight, air, water, and good soil which requires bacteria and fungi which make nutrients accessible as well as worms that help nutrients cycle underground, and these worms, fungi and bacteria need things, etc. It can get complex fast.), but there are other ecosystem services that many of us are not aware of though they are just as important, if not even more important. </div>
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Nutrient cycling is one such extremely important, but ofter overlooked, ecosystem service that bacteria, fungi, protozoans, nematodes, and various other microorganisms as well as worms, and burrowing animals, etc., provide. Nutrient cycling helps keep the soil fertile and often helps the soil retain moisture. This is important for our crops as well as all plants which are the base of many food webs. If nutrients didn't cycle, as a plant would grow its roots would deplete the soil in its vicinity. The roots could grow longer to reach nutrients further and further away, but there is a limit to how long roots can grow. The roots could also divide into a finer network to extract nutrients in the in-between places, but there is a limit to how finely divided a root system can become. Thus, rather than the plant depleting its local area and eternally growing to reach nutrients further-and-further away, the nutrients come to the plant. Bacteria and fungi make nutrients from atmospheric gases and transport those nutrients to plants in exchange for photosynthetically made sugars from the plant; worms and burrowing animals move nutrients from deeper levels to higher levels; decomposers breakdown dead organic matter into nutrients that the plant can use. All of these processes make nutrients available to plants without the plant having to move or invest energy in growth.</div>
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<img class="mainImage" height="316" src="http://www.vtaide.com/png/images/nitrogenCycle.jpg" style="background-color: white; height: 580px; width: 734px;" width="400" /></div>
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Pollination and seed dispersal are another important, but often overlooked ecosystem service. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council approximately 30% of the world's crops are pollinated by bees alone. Many plants require pollinators from bats and birds, to bees and butterflies to sexually reproduce. Without this pollinator service many plants would soon die off and this would effect many other things like soil quality, climate, the gas composition of the atmosphere, and the number and kind of organisms that live off of plant matter in some way just to name a few.</div>
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Seed dispersion is necessary for many plants to increase their range size, to maintain genetic diversity, to increase the odds of rooting in fertile ground, to reduce local competition for resources, etc. and can be performed by insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals including humans.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSRzL3Sbb_xSVTzuO8TKWEr69ZquUBTpx53gflKKIE2V3WrhB5ykMRYhHwOUVM35je_ctJozB8WlGBPL7aHA4q9JQn-pd0R4G4zAkXrvcwxiMYt7UUfquHkCXjt3FIy9vk0VQo8Mzib-BV/s1600/Cedar+Waxwing+TWO+web+%25C2%25A9+sRGB+2.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="573" /></div>
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Climate Control, atmospheric regulation and the regulation of the hydrological cycle are yet another often overlooked ecosystem services provided by many organisms. These services are perhaps provided more subtly and seem more abstract, but in the absence of a favorable climate, atmosphere and water cycle much of life on Earth would perish. We all contribute to atmospheric regulation. All organisms respire and produce CO2 or a CO2 equivalent (even plants produce some CO2). Other organisms, like plants, algae and some bacteria make atmospheric oxygen out of CO2, while other bacteria make methane and nitrogen gas. Just how the chemical composition of the atmosphere is maintained is still somewhat of a mystery, but we all contribute in some way and benefit too.</div>
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Organisms effect their climate. Let's take a forest as an example. A forest tends to be cooler and more humid than a city. There is even some evidence that forests, because they are cooler and more humid, might generate some of their own rain in a way similar to "lake effect" precipitation. Additionally, because forests retain moisture, they tend to help water percolate deep and recharge underground aquifers. This process also helps purify water. For all of these reasons when forests like the rain forests are clear-cut the land tends to become much drier and hotter, prone to desertification and fires. Thus, many of the climates we enjoy on Earth might, in part, be created by the organisms around us and we would be wise to maintain them so that all of Earth doesn't become a harsh, hot, barren desert. </div>
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Organisms who provide biological waste regulation services just like your local garbage collector tend to be under-acknowledged for their efforts. Decomposers and nutrient recyclers are constantly at work. Could you imagine living on an Earth where nothing dead ever broke down? The Earth would be a heap of all the bodies of the plants, animals and microorganisms that ever lived with no room to live and with all the nutrients tied up. Luckily, there are decomposers and recycling-minded organisms (like fungi and bacteria) who break down dead things into their elemental parts so that the nutrients can be re-used to make the bodies of organisms living, growing and still yet to be born.</div>
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Other organisms get rid of, detoxify or store our waste and pollution. Wetlands are very good at removing pollutants, fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals from rivers and lakes. Other organisms help purify the air by removing pollutants and storing them in their bodies. Many bacteria in the soil break down many human-made chemicals and remove molecules from water, in a purifying process, as it percolates to underground aquifers that we then can use as drinking water or irrigation water.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.vetcheryl.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/decomposer.jpg" height="318" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 51px;" width="445" /></div>
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Other ecosystem services also go unnoticed like the disturbance mitigation wetlands and mangrove forests provide against flooding and tidal waves, or wind breaking by trees, or the prevention of landslides and erosion by the roots of plants. </div>
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Biological regulation like pest control by predators is an important ecosystem service that we receive. If there were no checks and balances on organisms like mosquitoes, termites, mice, bacteria, pathogens, etc., Earth would be a very different place (probably a very miserable one). Biodiversity is one of the best protections against disease-causing organisms because it controls their populations and limits the extent of their range as well as provides competition for their niche.</div>
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://charles-harvey.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/bat-eating-insect.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="588" /></div>
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The biological world also provides genetic resources which are important for resilience. Diversity is necessary for life to survive a dynamic and sometimes harsh environment. In agriculture, crosses are often made in the lab between ancestral corn plants and modern versions of corn when varieties need to be selected that can survive droughts better or that can survive the attacks of certain pests better, for example. Lately, scientists have exploited the genetic diversity of bacterial toxins for crop production by putting those bacterial genes in corn and other crops as an insecticide. </div>
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Science and society also benefit from the intellectual ecosystem services of education and imagination. Would we ever have thought of the possibility of flying had we not seen birds and insects flying? Would we ever have developed anti-biotics had Alexander Flemming not noticed that a fungus was creating compounds that were keeping bacterial colonies at bay? Will we develop renewable energy sources in the future mimicking the processes of photosynthesis?</div>
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For all of the ecosystem services that organisms on Earth provide for us how many more are provided that we're unaware of? Is it possible that there are many other services provided that we're not aware of? Is this reason enough to try and protect the biodiversity that exists on Earth?</div>
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The Earth and its organisms do so many things for us, to keep us alive, that we don't have to work or pay for. These ecosystem services range from artistic inspiration and peace of mind, to water filtration, climate control, atmospheric chemistry regulation and the provisioning of food. It can truly be said that we humans are totally dependent upon the organisms of this Earth for survival. It's probably wise for us to keep that in mind as we go forward in this modern age.</div>
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-Seth Commichaux</div>
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Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-45291890261801931832014-04-08T12:06:00.000-06:002014-04-22T17:07:24.758-06:00Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Blog Series Summary of 2014 Report<u><b><span style="font-size: large;">MY PURPOSE</span></b></u> <br />
<br />
Global Warming/Climate Change is a contentious issue of modern times, but too important of an issue, with implications for everyone on Earth, to ignore and for us to remain uninformed about the scientific evidence and predictions about its consequences for us and the rest of the biosphere. The scientific literature is building and consensus about its reality, as well as the evidence that its major driver is human activity, is growing. Between 1970 and 1990 less than 1,000 scientific articles, books and conference proceedings were published about climate change in English. However, by the end of 2012 there were over 102,000 and the number is dramatically increasing as more and more people are affected and become aware of global warming/climate change. When you include scientific articles from Africa, Asia, Latin America, Europe and Australia, the number is even greater. (2)<br />
<br />
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a major organization founded by the United Nation's World Meteorological Organization<span style="color: black;"></span> (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), has recently released (March 31, 2014) one of the most comprehensive reports and analysis of climate change to date. It also includes some of the most sophisticated, scientific models for predicting future outcomes of Global Warming/Climate change. I've taken it upon myself to read as much of the IPCC report as I humanly can and to write a blog series summarizing and citing its findings to inform you about the current state of science on the issue of Global Warming/Climate Change. It was reviewed by 1729 experts from 84 countries, had 436 contributing authors from 54 countries and over12,000 scientific references were cited. The panel made a conscious effort to have a diverse and fair representation of authors and reviewers, both in terms of gender and national background, to minimize political, religious and cultural biases. (1)<br />
<br />
<u><b><span style="font-size: small;">SUMMARY AND CITINGS FROM IPCC REPORT (WORKING GROUP 2)</span></b></u><br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-size: small;"> CHAPTER 1. POINT OF DEPARTURE</span></b><br />
<br />
"Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. Human influence on the climate system is clear; it has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes in the global water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some climate extremes." (2) I mention here also the acidification of the ocean and the detectable rise of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide and methane that can be directly attributed to the combustion of fossil fuels.<br />
<br />
It is likely that the global mean temperature will continue to rise
throughout the 21st century and that the "length, frequency, and/or
intensity of warm spells or heat waves will increase over most land
areas." "It is likely that the frequency of heavy precipitation will
increase in the 21st century over many areas of the globe." (2)<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img class="mainImage" src="http://zfacts.com/metaPage/lib/zFacts-CO2-Temp.gif" height="229" style="background-color: white; height: 377px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 526px;" width="320" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 1. Showing the strong correlation between mean global temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide increase</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null"> </a> </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img class="mainImage" src="http://77zero.org/files/2010/01/co2-temperature.JPG" height="94" style="height: 287px; width: 610px;" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 2. The periodic oscillations of carbon dioxide over the past 400,000 years and the uncharacteristic spike who's beginning strongly correlates with the beginning of the industrial revolution.</td></tr>
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Three goals of the Working Group (WG) who wrote the IPCC report:<br />
1) Detect and identify impacts of climate change<br />
2) Identify what of climate change can be attributed to human activity<br />
3) Predict and project effects of climate change into the 21st century <br />
<br />
"As basic resources such as energy, land, food or water become threatened, inequalities and unfairness may deepen leading to maladaptation and new forms of vulnerability. Responses to climate change may have consequences and outcomes that favor certain populations or regions. For example, there are increasing cases of land-grabbing and large acquisitions of land or water rights for industrial agriculture, mitigation projects or biofuels that have negative consequences on local and marginalized communities." (2)<br />
<br />
• Risks to Unique and Threatened Systems: biodiversity and many ecosystems such as polar and high mountain communities are at increased risk of adverse impacts from temperatures increase<br />
• Risks Associated with Extreme Weather Events: projected increases in droughts, heat waves, extreme high-water coastal events, a rise in sea-levels and floods, as well as their adverse impacts.<br />
• Risks Associated with the Distribution of Impacts: “There are sharp differences across regions and those in the weakest economic position are often the most vulnerable to climate change." However, the poor and elderly are vulnerable groups in developed and developing countries alike.<br />
• Risks Associated with Aggregate Impacts: Whatever benefits come from less-severe winters and cold-spells will be dwarfed by the negative costs of excessive heat and more severe weather patterns.<br />
<br />
Even if we adjust our behavior now we will not be able to avoid further impacts of climate change for decades to come, but if we don't adjust our behavior the magnitude of effects caused by climate change will likely make "adaptation impossible for some natural systems;" while humanity will likely suffer "very high social and economic costs." (2)<br />
<br />
"the deployment of renewable energy technologies has increased rapidly in recent years, often associated with cost reductions that are expected to continue with advancing technology. Despite the small contribution of renewable energy to current energy supplies.....the global potential of renewable energy...(is)...substantially higher than the global energy demand. It is therefore not the technological potential of renewable energy that constrains its development, but rather economic factors, system integration, constraints, public acceptance, and sustainability concerns." (2)<br />
<br />
"Economic losses from weather- and climate-related disasters have increased, but with large spatial and (temporal) variability." Disaster losses, fatality rates and economic losses due to climate related events are higher in developing countries. "From 1970-2008....more than 95% of deaths from natural disasters were in developing countries." "environmental degradation, unplanned urbanization, failure of governance or reduction of livelihood options result in increased exposure and vulnerability to disasters." "improvements in governance and technology...(and)...more transformational changes are essential for reducing risk from climate extremes." (2)<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CITED FROM CHAPTER 1. POINT OF DEPARTURE</b></u></span><br />
<br />
<b>Greenhouse gases and climate forcing</b>:<br />
<br />
"Human activities are the dominant cause of the observed increase in well mixed greenhouse gases (GHGs) since 1750 and of the consequent increase in climate forcing." (2)<br />
<ol>
<li>GHGs have continued to increase and at an accelerated rate since 1970. </li>
<li>Present-day (2011) abundances of CO2, CH4, and N2O exceed the range over the past<br />800,000 years found in ice cores.</li>
<li>Annual emission of CO2 from fossil fuels and cement production was 9.5 GtC in 2011, 54% above the 1990 level.</li>
<li>More than 20% of added CO2 will remain in the atmosphere for longer than 1000 years.</li>
<li>Cumulative CO2 emissions from 1750 to 2011 are 365 GtC (fossil fuel and cement) plus 180 GtC (deforestation and other land-use change). This 545 GtC represents about half of the 1000 GtC total that can be emitted and still keep global warming under 2 °C relative to the reference period 1861-1880.</li>
<li><b>***In 2010, GHG emissions surpassed 50 Gt CO2-eq (13.6 GtC), higher than in any previous year since 1750. Most of the emission growth between 2000 and 2010 came from fossil-fuel use in the energy and industry sectors, and took place in emerging economies. This emission growth was not met by significant GHG emission cuts in the industrialized country group, which continued to dominate historical long-term contributions to global CO2 emissions. In 2010, median per capita GHG emissions in high income countries were roughly ten times higher than in low-income countries.</b>***</li>
</ol>
<b>Surface Temperatures: </b><br />
<ol>
<li>Global mean surface temperature increased by 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C over the period 1880–<br />2012 (linear trend) and by 0.72°C over the period 1951–2012. Each of the last three decades (from 1983 to 2012) has been successively warmer than any preceding decade since 1850. </li>
<li>More than half of the 1951-2010 temperature increase is due to the observed<br />anthropogenic increase in GHG (Greenhouse Gases).</li>
<li>The projected near term (2016-2035) mean surface temperature increase is 0.9–1.3 °C, and the long term (2081-2100) ranges from 0.9–2.3 °C to 3.2–5.4 °C.</li>
<li>Global temperatures during the last interglacial period (~120,000 years ago) were never more than 2°C higher than pre-industrial levels. By 2050 the global warming range is 1.5°C to 2.3°C above the 1850-1900 period based on the range across all...models. </li>
</ol>
<b>Precipitation: </b><br />
<ol>
<li>Precipitation (global annual averages) will increase as temperatures increase, and the contrast between dry and wet regions and that between wet and dry seasons will increase over most of the globe.</li>
<li>High latitudes will experience more precipitation;many moist mid latitude regions will also experience more; while many mid latitude and subtropical arid and semiarid regions will experience less.</li>
</ol>
<b>Extreme temperatures and precipitation: </b><br />
<ol>
<li>Extreme high temperatures (20-year return values) are projected to increase at a rate similar to or greater than the rate of increase of summer mean temperatures in most regions.</li>
<li>In the long term heat waves will occur at higher frequency and longer duration in response to increased seasonal mean temperatures.</li>
<li>With global warming, the frequency and intensity of heavy/extreme precipitation events will increase over most mid latitude land and over wet tropical regions.</li>
</ol>
<b>Floods and droughts: </b><br />
<ol>
<li>In many regions, historical droughts (last 1000 years) and historical floods (last 500 years)<br />have been more severe than those observed since 1900.</li>
<li>The frequency and intensity of drought has increased in the Mediterranean and West Africa, and it has decreased in central North America and north-west Australia since 1950.</li>
<li>There is low confidence in attributing drought changes to human influence.</li>
</ol>
<b>Tropical cyclones, storms, and wave heights:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>The frequency and intensity of the strongest tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic has increased since the 1970s.</li>
<li>The maximum wind speed and precipitation rates of tropical cyclones will increase.</li>
<li>Circulation features have moved poleward since the 1970s, including a poleward shift of storm tracks and jet streams.</li>
<li>With global warming, a shift to more intense individual storms and fewer weak storms is projected.</li>
<li>Mean significant wave height has increased over much of the Atlantic north of 45°N since 1950, with winter season trends of up to 20 cm/decade.</li>
<li>Wave heights and the duration of the wave season will increase in the Arctic Ocean as a result of reduced sea-ice extent. Wave heights will increase in the Southern Ocean as a result of enhanced wind speeds.</li>
</ol>
<b>Ocean warming, stratification and circulation:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Overall, the ocean has warmed throughout most of its depth over some periods since 1950, and this warming accounts for about 93% of the increase in Earth's energy inventory between 1971 and 2010.</li>
<li>The upper ocean above 700 m has warmed from 1971 to 2010, and the thermal stratification has increased by about 4% above 200 m depth. Anthropogenic forcings have made a substantial contribution to this upper ocean warming.</li>
<li>To date there is no observational evidence of a long-term trend in Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation; and over the 21st century it is projected to weaken but not undergo an abrupt transition or collapse.</li>
</ol>
<b>Ocean acidification and low-oxygen:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2 results in gradual acidification of the ocean. Since 1750 the pH of seawater has decreased by 0.1 (a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration).</li>
<li>Aragonite under-saturation becomes widespread in parts of the Arctic and Southern Oceans and in some coastal upwelling systems at atmospheric CO2 levels of 500–600 ppm. (This means that many shellfish's shells (such as mollusks) as well as coral's will dissolve in the acidity of the ocean.)</li>
<li>Oxygen concentrations have decreased since the 1960s in the open ocean thermocline of many regions. By 2100, the oxygen content of the ocean will decrease by a few percent. (This could cause the suffocation of many lifeforms who separate oxygen from the water when they respire underwater.)</li>
</ol>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img class="mainImage" src="http://www.pulsarecard.com/data/media/849/Corals%20Sea%20Shells.jpg" height="300" style="background-color: white;" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 3. A coral on a beach</td></tr>
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<b>Sea ice:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>The annual Arctic sea ice extent decreased at a rate of 3.5 to 4.1% per decade between 1979 and 2012. The average Arctic winter sea ice thickness decreased between 1980 and 2008.</li>
<li>Over the past three decades, Arctic summer sea ice retreat was unprecedented and Arctic sea surface temperatures were anomalously high, compared with the last 1,450 years.</li>
<li>With global warming, further shrinking and thinning of Arctic sea ice cover is projected, and the Arctic Ocean will be nearly ice-free in September before 2050 for the high-warming scenarios.</li>
<li>Annual Antarctic sea ice extent increased by 1.2 to 1.8 % per decade between 1979 and 2012. The scientific understanding of this observed increase has low confidence. With global warming, Antarctic sea ice extent and volume is expected to decrease (low confidence).</li>
</ol>
<b>Ice sheets, glaciers, snow cover and permafrost:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>During periods over the past few million years that were globally warmer than present, the Greenland and West Antarctic Ice Sheets were smaller.</li>
<li>The Antarctic and Greenland Ice Sheets have on average lost ice during the last two decades, and the rate of loss has increased over the most recent decade to a sea-level rise equivalent of 0.6 mm/y for Greenland and 0.4 mm/yr for Antarctica.</li>
<li>Almost all glaciers world-wide have continued to shrink since the mid-20th century. </li>
<li>Over the last decade, most ice was lost from glaciers in Alaska, Canadian Arctic, Greenland Ice Sheet periphery, Southern Andes, and Asian Mountains. Current glacier extents are out of balance with current climate, and glaciers will continue to shrink even without further warming.</li>
<li>Snow cover extent has decreased in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in spring.</li>
<li>Permafrost temperatures have increased in most regions since the early 1980s: observed warming was up to 3°C in parts of Northern Alaska and 2°C in parts of the Russian European North.</li>
</ol>
<b>Sea level rise:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>During the last interglacial period, when global mean temperatures were no more than 2°C above preindustrial values (medium confidence), maximum global mean sea level was, for several thousand years, 5 m to 10 m with substantial contributions from Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets.</li>
<li>The rate of sea level rise since the mid-19th century has been larger than the mean rate during the previous two millennia.</li>
<li>Global mean sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.7 mm/yr from 1901 to 2010 and at a faster rate, 3.2 mm/yr, from 1993 to 2010 (this current rate is approximately 1.26 inches/decade).</li>
<li>If global warming exceeds a certain threshold resulting in near-complete loss of the Greenland Ice Sheet over a millennium or more (confidence not assessed), global mean sea level would rise about 7 m.</li>
<li>The magnitude of extreme high sea level events has increased since 1970. Future sea level extremes will become more frequent beyond 2050, primarily as a result of increasing mean sea level.</li>
</ol>
<b>Climate patterns:</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Models project an eastward shift of El Niño temperature and precipitation variations over the North Pacific and North America. El Niño remains the dominant mode of inter-annual climate variability in the future, and the El Niño precipitation anomalies will intensify due to increased moisture.</li>
<li>Monsoon onset dates become earlier or do not change and monsoon retreat dates delay, lengthening the monsoon season. Reduced warming and decreased precipitation is projected in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean, with increased warming and precipitation in the western, influencing East Africa and Southeast Asia precipitation.</li>
</ol>
<u><b>CONCLUSION</b></u><br />
<br />
"A continuation of current trends of technological change in the absence of explicit climate change mitigation policies is not sufficient to bring about stabilization of greenhouse gases. Scenarios, which are more likely than not, to limit temperature increase to 2° C are becoming increasingly challenging." (2)<br />
<br />
Sources Cited:<br />
<br />
1) http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/IPCC_WG2AR5_FactSheet.pdf<br />
2) The IPCC's WG II 5th assessment report on climate change (March 31, 2014)<br />
http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap1_FGDall.pdf<br />
<br />
-Seth Commichaux Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-6896120725681576282014-03-14T11:11:00.000-06:002014-03-14T11:11:57.186-06:00Juniper-Pinyon Forests On The Move!<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In Utah, a forest has been on the move. The Pinyon-Juniper forest has been expanding. </span><br />
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://shelledy.mesa.k12.co.us/staff/computerlab/images/CO_Plants_pinyon_juniper_woodlands.jpg" height="263" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="400" /> </div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A forest might seem frozen-in-time unless it's a windy day, but on other timescales trees are quite active. Many plants move in circadian cycles or in response to sunlight. Plants with tendrils like bean plants will reach out into their surroundings with their tendrils until they find something to grab on to, like a bean pole, at which point they will steady themselves and continue to grow upwards. But these timescales are much too short for a forest to move. For a forest to move it may take many, many generations. Depending on the trees involved this may take tens, hundreds, thousands, or even tens of thousands of years. It seems, trees might just have a different sense of time than we do. The human perspective is limited by the fact that most of us will only live 80 years or so. A juniper in California is believed to be over 3,000 years old and it isn't unusual for local Pinyons and Junipers to reach several hundreds of years old. This still isn't very old compared to the age of the Earth (~4.5 billion years old). It is hard to imagine how much change has occurred over such a long history. Regardless, Pinyon-Juniper forests are dynamic when viewed at a speed of a hundred years per second, moving north and south, east and west, up mountains and then down again as the environment changes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It's hard to know what the landscape was like a thousand years ago, or ten thousand, or a million, or a billion, but there is evidence that the majority of Pinyons and Junipers were living much farther south than today, only reaching as far North as Arizona, by the end of the last ice age 12,000 years ago (it's weird to think that during this time period giant sloths, wooly mammoths and saber toothed cats might've been moving amongst the same kind of Pinyon-Juniper forests that we see today. Things change fast!). It would be interesting to see if, back in the ice age, the Pinyons and Junipers grew to the same size or if they even looked the same as modern versions, knowing that climate and species-interactions affect the expression of genes and thus the way the trees would've looked.</span><br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img class="irc_mut" src="http://a-z-animals.com/media/animals/images/original/woolly_mammoth.jpg" height="256" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="400" /> </div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Today, Pinyons and Junipers can be found from Mexico to Montana @ altitudes from 3500'-9000' in dry environments receiving ~10"-22" of precipitation a year. Generally the forests are composed of Colorado Pinyon with one or a combination of One-Seed Juniper, Utah Juniper, Alligator Juniper, and Rocky Mountain Juniper.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As the climate changes, organisms change their ranges in response. Also, when ecosystem composition changes or when the relationships between organisms changes, oftentimes so do the ranges of the organisms involved directly or inadvertently. These ecosystem, compositional changes and range-shifts can happen quite fast (hundreds or thousands of years) compared to geologic time scales (millions and billions of years). Thus, 10,000 years from now the junipers and pinyons might have moved to other areas of the continent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">More recently, meaning from 12,000 years ago until up to about 150 years ago, immigrants from Asia (the Native Americans) helped shape the range of the Pinyon-Juniper forest by cutting it down for firewood, using the pine nuts of the pinyons for a major food source as well as not controlling fires as stringently as we do today. With the arrival of European and American explorers, pioneers and many other immigrants, tree densities initially decreased especially during the mid-nineteenth century when many Pinyons were cut down. This was done for two reasons: For one, it undermined many Native American groups who used pine nuts in the Great Basin for a major food staple in their diet. Secondly, the pinyons were used to make charcoal for ore-processing. Eventually, these activities were discontinued and the Pinyon-Juniper forest began to increase its range and density. Pinyon-Juniper forests have expanded their ranges up-slope into ponderosa pine
forests and down-slope into grass and shrub communities (especially sagebrush steppe). Much of this recent expansion can be attributed to our controlling wildfires, overgrazing grasslands and shrub-lands with domestic herds, and human-induced climate change with its corresponding increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For the most part, Pinyons and Junipers have a hard time getting their offspring to move to new areas and for their seeds to germinate without a little help. Thus Pinyon-Juniper forest movement is actually the result of the activity of symbiosis. For Pinyons, the Pinyon Jay is the major disperser of seeds. It takes about 2.5 years for the Pinyon seeds to mature. The Pinyon Jay uses the mature Pinyon pine nuts as a food source, but it also has a useful (useful for the Pinyons) habit of burying the seeds for storage. This is especially useful for the Pinyons if the Pinyon Jay forgets about its stashes (not so useful for Pinyon Jays, but it seems one's mistake is another's fortune). These buried seeds have the best chance of germinating and growing to adulthood. Indeed, Pinyon seeds will rarely germinate in the wild unless they are cached by jays or other animals. It seems that the Pinyon Jay has a habit of burying these stashes of seeds at the base of Juniper trees. If you walk through a Pinyon-Juniper forest you often see the Pinyon trees growing right next to the Junipers, as if they were growing from the same hole. This is because Pinyons need nurse plants to grow and Junipers tend to be nurse plants for Pinyons. A nurse plant according to wikipedia "is one with an established canopy, beneath which
germination and survival are more likely due to increased shade, soil
moisture, and nutrients. Thus, the relationship between seedlings and
their nurse plants is commensal. However, as the seedlings grow into
established plants, they are likely to compete with their former
benefactors for resources."</span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.celltherapysociety.org/resource/collection/DCBF7657-2AFF-45D0-979A-E71840D9ADA4/pija.jpg" height="266" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="400" /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For Junipers, Jackrabbits and rodents (and coyotes to a lesser degree) are the main seed dispersers. Depending on the species of Juniper, the seeds and fruits may take 1,2 or 3 years to mature. The scarification of the seeds that occurs in the guts of the animals who eat the berries of the Juniper, as well as the excrement the seeds get balled up with before being dropped off at some new location in the environment all seem to be necessary for the successful germination and propagation of Junipers.</span><br />
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://images.nationalgeographic.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/005/cache/jackrabbit_586_600x450.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="560" /><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Many other animals use Pinyon-Juniper forests for habitat like Deer, Elk, Magpies, etc. It is also important habitat for many winter-migrating birds. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Many farmers, ranchers, range-managers and others see the expansion of Pinyon-Juniper forests as a nuisance, even as a danger, because it is a fire hazard and crowds out grasses and shrubs for grazing of domestic animals.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Various studies show, however, that though overly dense stands of Pinyon-Juniper trees do in fact crowd out grasses and shrubs, and can pose a fire hazard, their complete elimination doesn't provide the healthiest habitat either. Creating a patchwork, savannah-like forest seems to provide the most habitat for native animals and plants who are reliant upon these forests while also maximizing the amount of grasses and shrubs for grazing purposes. If the trees are cut too thin or dispersed, they can't easily reproduce and replace themselves with newer generations nor can they provide adequate cover for animals and birds who use these trees to hide, rest, shelter, and nest. Before we began to micro-manage wildfires, it seems that Pinyon-Juniper forests were evolved to withstand regular, but limited fires every 50-100 years, the forest requiring about 80-90 years to re-establish itself after such a fire. If fires are too frequent or too large the trees can't regenerate their populations (the Utah Juniper requires about 30 years to reach sexual maturity).</span><br />
<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.angusbeefbulletin.com/extra/2009/nov09/nov09_images/1109mg_fire-in-juniper.jpg" height="393" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 14px;" width="550" /><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">After fires, the former Pinyon-Juniper forest goes through a many-years-long, ecological process of succession to get back to the forest ecosystem. The year of or directly after the fire only perennial grasses grow. After a few years, the perennial grasses start being joined by shrubs and after a decade or so grasses and shrubs are joined by trees. Oftentimes, in these circumstances, sagebrush serves as a nurse plant for young Junipers who will then in turn be nurse plants for Pinyons. As the trees get bigger they start displacing shrubs and grasses. Thus we see that even on a shorter timescale of just a few decades that the environment is still dynamic and shape-shifting. One species displaces another while paving the way for others to establish themselves. Because of ecological succession, if there isn't occasionally a fire, or some other disturbance, the Pinyon-Juniper forest will eventually crowd out many other species of grasses and shrubs which in turn support a whole community of other animals and plants. Thus for an ecosystem to be healthy and diverse, some disturbance is necessary.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /><span style="font-size: small;">As of late, we've been experiencing more frequent droughts. With human-induced and natural climate change an on-going process, we might even see more droughts. This is bad for Pinyons. One study I read found that Pinyons have a 6.5 times greater mortality rate than Junipers during and following droughts. This means that Pinyon-Juniper forests are slowly becoming Juniper-dominated forests, Junipers being more drought tolerant. This is bad for the organisms that depend upon Pinyons like Pinyon Jays, other avian seed-dispersers, rodents, rabbits, deer, fungal and bacterial symbionts, etc. as well as the Pinyon-Juniper community which will generally be affected in unpredictable ways.</span></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If I've conveyed anything to you, I hope it is the fact that environments are dynamic and mobile. They change composition and direction in response to the climate and by the influences of interactions with other organisms (like humans!). While a community, like a flock of birds, may move very fast in response to a change in weather, migrating South for the Winter for instance, other communities, like a forest, are just as sensitive to local conditions, but they move much more slowly (with the help of seed dispersers), perhaps taking hundreds or thousands of years to shift their range. Locally, the community may change composition even faster after a disturbance such as a fire, going through a process of ecological succession. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img class="irc_mut" src="http://thewildlifenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/imgp6234.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="560" /> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Life is ever-dynamic and amazingly adaptable!</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNRMT; font-size: x-small;">-Seth Commichaux</span></span><br />
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Sources Cited:<br />
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<a href="http://www.sagestep.org/educational_resources/bibliographies/articles/2002_MillerTausch.pdf">http://www.sagestep.org/educational_resources/bibliographies/articles/2002_MillerTausch.pdf</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02856556#page-1">http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02856556#page-1 </a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01042.x/pdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01042.x/pdf</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www4.nau.edu/direnet/publications/publications_b/files/barney_frischknecht_1974.pdf">https://www4.nau.edu/direnet/publications/publications_b/files/barney_frischknecht_1974.pdf</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://pjdb.csfs.colostate.edu/Content/pdf/Gottfried_1994.pdf">http://pjdb.csfs.colostate.edu/Content/pdf/Gottfried_1994.pdf</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_facilitation">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_facilitation</a> <br />
<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniperus_osteosperma">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniperus_osteosperma</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-leaf_Pinyon">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-leaf_Pinyon</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyon-juniper_woodland">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyon-juniper_woodland</a>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-46732048482492626032014-02-21T10:32:00.000-07:002014-02-21T10:32:15.577-07:00What Lives On A SlothThere is a small, furry creature creeping at a snail's pace up in the branches of the cacao trees of Costa Rica (found in various regions of Central and South America)! It's a three-toed sloth! Like all creatures, this sloth has an amazing life-story to share with you, but we only have enough space here to hear one tale. I read a story about a scientific study in the New York Times about why three-toed-sloths make a dangerous journey to the forest floor. Being a good journalist I had to ask the sloth a rude question to see if the story was true. I asked, "Why do you only go to the bottom of the tree once a week just to go to the bathroom?" (Ever seen a sloth blush? Neither have I. They're very composed afterall.) Let's listen to the sloth's response.<br />
<br />
Hello? Hello? Can you hear me? This is Sloth here. No up here. Look up higher in the trees.<br />
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<img alt="" class="media-viewer-candidate" data-mediaviewer-caption="A three-toed juvenile sloth in Costa Rica." data-mediaviewer-credit="iStock" data-mediaviewer-src="http://static01.nyt.com/images/2014/01/28/science/28SLOT_SPAN/28SLOT-superJumbo.jpg" src="http://static01.nyt.com/images/2014/01/28/science/28SLOT_SPAN/28SLOT-master675.jpg" height="306" itemid="http://static01.nyt.com/images/2014/01/28/science/28SLOT_SPAN/28SLOT-master675.jpg" itemprop="url" width="400" /><br />
Credit: New York Times<br />
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Hello there. I do say that's not a very couth question to ask a respectable sloth like me, but if you insist on knowing I'll tell you. <br />
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We sloths are very slow. A normal speed for us is about .15 mph and we have a tendency to be a bit snoozey, sleeping 15-20 hours a day. Don't laugh, it's not that we're lazy. No, no, no. You see we have a very restricted diet of leaves and leaves aren't very nutritious. Not to mention, many of them are toxic at that. Because we live off of plant matter we have to let the leaves ferment in our guts; that means that we have to wait for microorganisms like bacteria, archaeans and fungi to break it down into little bits that we can digest. In fact, we have the slowest metabolism in the whole mammal class. It's the lack of nutrition and our slow metabolism that cause us to move so slow.<br />
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So, you wonder, if we three-toed-sloths are so slow, why do we leave the safety of the trees once a week to go to the bathroom at the forest floor when feral dogs, coyotes and panthers could so easily snatch us away (1/2 of all our deaths occur on the ground afterall)? Firstly, we need to separate ourselves from our two-toed-sloth cousins who never leave the safety of the trees to go #2. Look out below! But that is because our two-toed cousins move a little faster than we do and they eat a more diverse diet than just leaves including fruits and animals. On the other hand, we three-toed-sloths, if you remember, have a very poor diet of just leaves. We leave the safety of the trees for the sake of our diet you could say.<br />
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Scientists used to think we were just fertilizing our favorite trees. Ha Ha Ha. But the real reason is that when we climb down the cacao trees and go to the bathroom a whole bunch of moths come out of our fur and lay their eggs in our poo. P U! I hope they plug their noses. When the moth eggs hatch the larvae eat the dung to grow. When the larvae are full grown they go flying up into the canopy of the forest to find one of us three-toed-sloths to call home. You see, these moths are special moths to us. They live nowhere else in the world, except in our fur. That makes them pretty special and us pretty special too. When we groom, our claws move so slow that the moths can move out of the way without being harmed and over 100 of those moths can be living in the fur of just one of us!<br />
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Why are there moths living in our fur you might ask. Well as it turns out, when they die in our fur the bacteria and fungi on our body decompose them into nutritious molecules that are nitrogen rich, but we don't eat that. Rather, the algae growing on our fur absorb the nitrogen compounds and other nutrients. Our fur is great for growing algae; it has little cracks that collect water when it rains. Algae like living in water and because our hairs collect water in those little cracks, the algae like living on and in our hairs where the water is. The algae growing on our fur kind of gives some of us a green tint. <br />
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.pitt.edu/~jdk75/assets/greensloth.jpg" height="393" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="393" /> </div>
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Credit: pitt.edu</div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
Now this is where it gets tasty and this completes the long answer as to why we climb down trees at great personal risk to go to the bathroom once a week. If you weren't following because you're snoozey likes us, let's recap. We three-toed-sloths have moths that are found nowhere else in the world living in our fur. When we go poo they lay their eggs in the dung and then climb back aboard as we climb back up. When their eggs hatch and their larvae have grown into moths, they fly up into the trees looking for one of us to live on. When one of these moths dies in our fur it is decomposed by bacteria and fungi that live on our bodies too. The algae growing in the rainwater-filled cracks of our hairs absorb the nutrients released by the decomposition of the moths. You could say we're growing an algae garden on our fur, because we eat that algae. That's right, we eat the algae that grows on our fur. Why? Because, though algae has about the same amount of carbohydrates and protein content as plant leaves, it is much richer in lipids, and this gives us energy. So, we supplement our nutrient-poor and energy-poor diet of leaves with our algae gardens.</div>
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That's it. That's why we climb down our cacao trees to go to the bathroom even though there's a great risk that we'll get eaten by panthers, coyotes and feral dogs down there. Friends will make you do crazy things, but the truth is that our moths would go extinct if we didn't make that trip so that they could lay their eggs. And without those moths living in our fur, we wouldn't be able to grow algae gardens to supplement our poor diets and we might starve. </div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<img class="g-aiAbs" src="http://graphics8.nytimes.com/newsgraphics/2014/01/28/sloths-moths-algae/a3cb4bfda6e9bad2cb443eafe717b70fcc01b5cf/sloth-artboard_1.png" height="277" id="g-ai0" width="400" /></div>
Credit: New York Times<br />
<br />
So there you have it. Crazy isn't it, who we need in this world to survive. What we have to do to help others and to receive in turn. Maybe we need each other in some peculiar, convoluted way too? See you later! Thanks for listening! You know where to find me; just look up and I'll be hanging around in my cacao trees.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.worldlandtrust.org/sites/files/brown-throated-sloth-lee-dingain.jpg" height="266" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="400" /></div>
Credit: World Land Trust<br />
<br />
-Seth Commichaux<br />
<br />
Sources:<br />
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New York Times. The Sloth's Busy Inner Life. Nicholas Wade. January 28, 2014.<br />
<br />
Proceedings of the Royal Society. Jonathan Pauli, Jorge Mendoza, Shawn Steffan, Cayelan Carey, Paul Weimar, Zachariah Peery. A Syndrome of Mutualism Reinforces the Lifestyle of a Sloth. 2014. <br />
<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-toed_sloth">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-toed_sloth</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/three-toed-sloth/">http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/three-toed-sloth/</a>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-89945196190426471032014-02-13T13:00:00.003-07:002014-02-13T13:01:35.347-07:00What Goes Around comes Around<em>Hey Folks - </em><i>We want to note that the Green Fork Utah blog does not necessarily reflect the views of USEE. It is a venue to prompt discussion and critical thinking and the articles are created and posted by staff, interns and volunteers. Please check out the blog below by our wonderful volunteer, Maizy Anderson, and tell us what you think in the comments! We'd love to have an open and respectful discussion.</i><br /><i>The USEE Staff </i><br />
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Have you ever wondered where your empty water bottle goes after you throw it in the trash? The bottle could end up buried at a landfill, burned in an incinerator, or it could end up belted around a young sea turtle. However, there is another place you may never expect the plastic to end up: inside your own body. Nature functions by building up and breaking down, and we are continually putting trash in the earth that nature cannot digest. An average American generates 4.6 pounds of trash per day, which translates to 251 million tons per year. (EPA) This is about twice as much trash as other countries accumulate. The biggest contributor to our dissipating eco systems is plastic; a substance that is totally at odds with the environment. It’s critical that we take responsibility for the trash we produce if our species and eco systems are to survive.<br />
<a href="http://maizyanderson.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/landfill.jpg" sl-processed="1"><img alt="Image" class="size-full wp-image alignleft" src="http://maizyanderson.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/landfill.jpg?w=290" height="193" id="i-15" width="290" /></a>The majority of trash in America ends up being sent to a landfill. Landfills are not created to break down trash; they are created to bury it. Landfills are the largest human-related source of methane in the United States. Methane is a greenhouse gas 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide. By sending excessive amounts of trash to landfills, we are polluting the air that we have to breathe in order for us to survive.<br />
When the trash starts to overflow in the landfill, some cities have it sent to an incinerator where it can be burned. There is no sorting process before the trash is burned; everything goes in. When plastics are incinerated, the chemicals that are released are known as dioxins. Dioxins can enter the body by inhalation, or by consuming animals that have inhaled the dioxins. “When dioxins enter the body they can cause skin rashes, mild liver damage, cardiovascular deterioration, infertility in men and women, and degeneration of the endocrine system.” (Banerjee 3) It is nearly impossible to eliminate these dioxins from our bodies. However, women can get rid of them by having a baby. Sadly, these dioxins are passed on to the infant and can cause severe deformities, and a shorter life for the child.<br />
<a href="http://maizyanderson.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/charlesmoore.jpg" sl-processed="1"><img alt="Image" class=" wp-image alignright" src="http://maizyanderson.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/charlesmoore.jpg?w=360&h=226" height="226" id="i-12" title="Plastic litter sampling from Great Pacific Garbage Patch" width="360" /></a><br />
In 1997, Captain Charles Moore was sailing through the North Pacific Gyre when he made a heartbreaking discovery. In Moore’s article Trashed, he said, “As I gazed from the deck at the surface of what ought to have been a pristine ocean, I was confronted as far as the eye could see, with the sight of plastic.” Somewhere between 70 and 80 per cent of the trash accumulating in the ocean is post-consumer waste from the land. Typically, the trash is swept into the ocean by storms and wind. The wind-driven, swirling current of the North Pacific Gyre gathers plastics and other trash, slowly moving it towards the center of the region, creating an island. Curtis Ebbesmeyer, a leading flotsam expert, named this accumulation of trash the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP). The GPGP might be the biggest body of pollution in the world today. The patch mostly consists of pelagic plastics, formed from plastic bags and plastic bottles. Some researchers and scientists have estimated the patch to be twice the size of Texas, but no one really knows. The sun breaks down the plastics into smaller and smaller pieces, which makes it difficult to judge the size of the patch. Since Moore’s discovery, he founded the Algalita Marine Research Foundation. Moore has revealed that in numerous sampled areas, plastic concentration is 7 times higher than Zooplankton. Basically, there is more trash than life in parts of our oceans.<br />
<a href="http://maizyanderson.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/bird.jpg" sl-processed="1"><img alt="Image" class=" wp-image alignleft" src="http://maizyanderson.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/bird.jpg?w=363&h=272" height="272" id="i-18" width="363" /></a> “Whether it’s an algae-sifting whale or a fish-eating seal, small pieces of plastic are mistaken for food at all levels of the food chain. Greenpeace estimates that one million birds and 100,000 marine mammals die in the Garbage Patch each year.” (Dumas 2) Most people don’t realize that what they do can affect the environment thousands of miles away. Essentially, these plastics can and do end up in the human body by consuming seafood. Eskimo women in Alaska are being told to give their babies formula because their milk is toxic due to eating fish that are high up on the food chain. However, everyone in the population today has plastic chemicals in their body. If the earth can’t digest plastics, neither can humans.<br />
In the documentary Garbage Island, Moore said, “The earth can’t spit it [plastic] out, unless we stop putting it in.” So what is the best way to dispose of plastics? The answer is very simple: recycle. Recycling reduces the amount of methane emissions that are produced in landfills, leading to much cleaner air for the environment and for us to breathe. Recycling also reduces the amount of dioxins released from burning plastics in incinerators; which will improve the health of species and environments near by. Not only does recycling protect and conserve the land and animals, it also helps us sustain human life. Altogether, recycling gives generations to come an opportunity to see and learn about all the beautiful creations of our world.<br />
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<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
Works Cited</div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: left;">
Banerjee, Tirtho. “Molecules of Death.” <i>Down to Earth</i>. Aug. 31 2001: 32-39. <i>SIRS Issues Researcher.</i> Web. 01 Dec 2013.</div>
Dumas, Daisy. “Landfill-On-Sea.” <i>Ecologist (London, England) Vol. 37, No. 7</i>. Sept. 2007: 34- 37. <i>SIRS Issues Researcher.</i> Web. 01 Dec 2013.<br />
<i>Charles Moore, “Trashed. Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics, everywhere.”</i><i>Natural History magazine. November 1993. Web. 3 December 2013.</i><br />
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Municipal Solid Waste.” Website. 2 Dec 2013. Web. 4 Dec 2013.<br />
<i>VICE Production ” Garbage Island: An ocean full of plastic.)</i><i>” Documentary. YouTube. </i><i>YouTube, 6 Sept. 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2013.</i><br />
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<em>-Maizy Anderson</em>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2240168782260797289.post-64772913845550223582014-02-11T11:21:00.002-07:002014-02-11T11:22:16.426-07:00Monarch Butterflies in Trouble<div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCX106454671" style="margin-left: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">
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<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"This year, for or the first time in memory, the monarch butterflies didn’t come, at least not on the Day of the Dead. They began to straggle in a week later than usual, in record-low numbers. <strong><em>Last year’s low of 60 million</em></strong> now seems great compared with the <strong><em>fewer than three million that have shown up so far this year</em></strong>. Some experts fear that the spectacular migration could be near collapse." (1) 2013's migration had the lowest number of Monarchs on record and the downward trend in the population is truly a cause for concern and rectifying action. Scientists are truly worried that within a few years the great migration of the Monarch to Mexico may be over.</span></span></div>
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<div class="Paragraph SCX106454671" paraeid="{10e867ef-a58c-4b7b-a299-175f5e51ecdd}{141}" paraid="942762399" style="background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; font-family: "Segoe UI",Tahoma,Verdana,"Sans-Serif"; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" xml:lang="EN-US">
<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Part of this decline may be attributable to the irresponsible and excessive use of pesticides across the United States which directly kill the Monarch Butterflies or compromise their health and ability to fly the many hundreds of miles on their remarkable journey. Neonicotinoids, a neuro-toxic family of insecticides developed by Shell and Bayer, are strongly implicated in the decline of honey bees and likely have detrimental effects on butterflies as well. That these compounds are neuro-toxic should cause humans pause, seeing how we have neurons too. </span></span><br />
<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></span><br />
<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Particularly detrimental to the Monarch's habitat, the use of herbicides that kill all plants except genetically modified crops designed to survive the onslaught. This practice has destroyed much of the milkweed populations which are the sole food on which the larvae feed. "One study<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit;"><span style="color: black;"> </span>showed that Iowa has lost almost 60 percent of its milkweed." (1)</span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Another cause contributing to the decline of Monarchs is the loss of native vegetation along their migratory route.<span class="EOP SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;"> Especially in recent years where '"the price of corn has soared....driven by federal subsidies for biofuels, farmers have expanded their fields. That has meant plowing every scrap of earth that can grow a corn plant, including millions of acres of land once reserved in a federal program for conservation purposes." (1)</span></span></div>
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<span class="EOP SCX106454671" style="font-family: Calibri,Sans-Serif; line-height: 19px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Additionally, people living along the migratory route of the Monarchs are developing the land at a rapid pace, replacing fields with houses, highways and parking lots, while planting lawns and plants that may have brightly attractive colors, but which are unusable for Monarchs. This loss of land and appropriate nutrition may be causing the butterflies to die of exhaustion or malnourishment or might make them more susceptible to disease. Numerous watch groups for the butterflies and other beneficial insects encourage homeowners to</span> <strong><span style="font-size: large;">plant native flowers that will actually give sustenance to the butterflies as they make their migratory journey!</span> </strong></span><br />
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://www.flightofthebutterflies.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Migration_Map.jpg" height="402" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 9px;" width="582" /><br />
Migratory Route of Monarch butterfly<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Besides the fact that Monarchs are important pollinators for our crops and for native flora and despite that they are mobile links that connect resources and services between ecosystems, why should we care that we might be seeing the end of one of the greatest annual insect migrations in the world? How about the value of wonder and insights into the mysteriousness of life?</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"In North America they make massive southward migrations starting in
August until the first frost. There is a northward migration in the
spring.
The monarch is the only North American butterfly that migrates both
north and south as the birds do regularly, but no individual makes the
entire round trip." (2) Sometimes the roundtrip migration can take as many as 4 or 5 generations.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Think about that for a minute....... Say it's August for a Monarch in Iowa. Somehow our brave butterfly can tell the time of year and realizes that it's time to go. How does she know it's time to go? No one knows, but she starts travelling South. Maybe she gets to Kansas where she lays an egg on a milkweed before dying. The larvae hatches and grows into a butterfly and somehow she knows that she needs to be migrating too. Not only that she needs to migrate, but where ever she finds herself she knows exactly what direction to go. She flies further south and perhaps makes it to South Texas where she lays an egg on a milkweed plant before dying. The next generation grows up and picks up right where her mother left off and flies to a specific forest in Mexico where all the migrating Monarchs from the East United States converge at nearly exactly the same time no matter if they started in Iowa or Maine, Mississippi or North Dakota. No matter where they migrated from up North they converge in this forest in Mexico almost always on or near the Day of the Dead celebration that takes place on October 31, November 1 and November 2. How do they know where to go? How can they have such a remarkably precise sense of time? How does one generation know where to pick up where the previous generation left off? </span><br />
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<img class="irc_mut" src="http://images.nationalgeographic.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/006/cache/monarch-butterfly_630_600x450.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="560" /> </div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Scientists know that Monarch Butterflies are astronomers. They keep track of the position of the sun in the sky and use it as compass adjusted to a circadian clock in their antennae. Additionally, "new research has also shown these butterflies can use the earth's magnetic field for orientation. The antennae contain cryptochrome,
a photoreceptor protein sensitive to the violet-blue part of the
spectrum. In the presence of violet or blue light, it can function as a
chemical compass, which tells the animal if it is aligned with the
earth's magnetic field, but it cannot tell the difference between
magnetic north or south. The complete magnetic sense is present in a
single antenna." (2)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But despite all of these sensory organs, it still doesn't elucidate how the butterflies use these tools to get where they need to go or how they know where to go. This multi-generational migration is a personal symbol of mine for having a purpose and a sense of meaning, for though each butterfly may not know why it is where it is or why it has the urge to travel, it is fulfilling a greater purpose which is the great migration of the Monarch.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">An appropriate variation on a cliché might be, 'you don't know what you've lost until it's gone.' But what's worse is the fact that we might lose a butterfly that has a story that inspires wonder, study, inquiry and mystery. How many other species might be lost from this world preventably, by our actions, whose life story could reveal incredible insights into what it means to be alive? </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><img class="irc_mut" src="http://kimsmithdesigns.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/monarch-butterfly-c2a9kim-smith-2012-2.jpg" height="420" id="irc_mi" style="margin-top: 0px;" width="590" /></span><br />
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-Seth Commichaux<br />
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<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">sources:</span></span></div>
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<span class="TextRun SCX106454671" style="line-height: 19px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCX106454671" style="background-color: inherit;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">1) </span><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/sunday-review/the-year-the-monarch-didnt-appear.html"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/sunday-review/the-year-the-monarch-didnt-appear.html</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;"> </span></span></span><span class="EOP SCX106454671" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 19px;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">2) </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_%28butterfly%29"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_%28butterfly%29</span></a><br />
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